¹ Van Gelder, G. J. H., Beyond the line: classical Arabic literary critics on the coherence and unity of the poem (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1982).Google Scholar

² Gelder, Van, Beyond the line, 33–36, 51.Google Scholar

³ Gelder, Van, Beyond the line, transl., 55.Google Scholar

⁴ Gelder, Van, Beyond the line, transl., 191.Google Scholar

⁵ Gelder, Van, Beyond the line, 143.Google Scholar

⁶ al-Mulk, Ibn Sanā', Dār al-ṭirāz fī ՙamal al-muwashshaḥāt, ed. al-Rikābī, Jawdat (2nd ed., Damascus: Dār al-flkr, 1977), 41Google Scholar. All translations are my own unless otherwise stated.

⁷ Kennedy, Philip F., ‘Thematic relationships between the kharjas, the corpus of Muwaššaḥāt and Eastern lyrical poetry’, in Jones, Alan and Hitchcock, Richard (ed.), Studies on the muwaššaḥ and the kharja (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1991), 68–87Google Scholar; idem, ‘ Thematic patterning in the muwaššaḥāt: the case of the gazelle motif’, in (ed.) F. Corriente and A. Saenz-Badillos, Poesía estrófica, (Madrid: Universidad Complutense–Instituto de Cooperación con el Mundo Arabe, 1991), 201–16.

⁸ Rosen-Moked, Tova, ‘ Towards the kharja: a study of the penultimate units in Arabic and Hebrew Muwaššaḥāt’, in Poesía Estrófica, op. cit., 279–288.Google Scholar

⁹ Menocal, María Rosa, The Arabic role in medieval literary history (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), 91–113.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Alonso, Dámaso. ‘Cancioncillas “de amigo” mozárabes (primavera temprana de la lírica europea)’, Revista de Filología Española, 33, 1949, 297–349Google Scholar; Pidal, Ramón Menéndez, ‘Cantos románicos andalusíes, continuadores de una lírica latina vulgar’, Boletín de la Real Academic Española, 31, 1951, 61–153.Google Scholar

¹¹ Dronke, Peter, The medieval lyric (London: Hutchinson, 1968), 86–90.Google Scholar

¹² Abu-Haidar, Jareer, ‘The kharja of the muwashshaḥ in a new light’, Journal of Arabic Literature, 9, 1978, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹³ Quzmān, Ibn, Gramática, métrica y texto del cancionero hispanoárabe de Aban Quzmán, ed. Corriente, F. (Madrid: Instituto-Hispano-Árabe de Cultura, 1980), 423.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Abu-Haidar, , ‘ The kharja of the muwashshaḥ’, 3–4.Google Scholar

¹⁵ cf. Abu-Haidar, , ‘The kharja of the muwashshaḥ’, 7.Google Scholar

¹⁶ See Beardsmore, Hugo Baetens, Bilingualism: basic principles (Clevedon: Multilingual matters, 1986), 15–16.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Corriente, Federico, Árabe andalusí y lenguas romances (Madrid: Editorial Mapfre, 1992), 34.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Fishman, Joshua A., ‘Bilingualism with and without diglossia: diglossia with and without bilingualism’, Journal of Social Issues, 23, 1967, 29–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on Wales see Bellin, Wynford, ‘Welsh and English in Wales’, in Trudgill, Peter (ed.), Language in the British Isles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 449–479Google Scholar, and Williams, Colin H., ‘Language contact and language change in Wales 1901–1971: a study in historical geolinguistics’, Welsh History Review, 10, 1980, 207–238Google Scholar; on al-Andalus see Wasserstein, David J., ‘The language situation in al-Andalus’, in Jones, and Hitchcock, (ed.), Studies on the muwaššaḥ and the kharja, 1–15.Google Scholar

¹⁹ cf. Weinreich, Uriel, Languages in contact (The Hague: Mouton, 1968), 84–85Google Scholar on the concept of the ‘unilingual hinterland’ of Rhaeto-Romance in Switzerland.

²⁰ Bellin, , ‘Welsh and English’, 450.Google Scholar

²¹ Williams, , ‘Language contact’, 215.Google Scholar

²² al-Ḥārith, Muḥammad b. al-Khushanī, Quḍāt Qurṭuba, ed. al-Abyārī, Ibrāhīm (Cairo: Dār al-kitāb al-miṣrī, 1982), 167.Google Scholar

²³ Text and translation in Wasserstein, David J., ‘A Latin lament on the prevalence of Arabic in ninth-century Cordoba’, in Jones, Alan (ed.), Arabicus felix: Luminosus Britannicus: Essays in Honour of A. F. L. Beeston on his eightieth birthday (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1990), 1–7Google Scholar; for Arnold's famous translation see Watt, W. Montgomery, A history of Islamic Spain (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1965), 56.Google Scholar

²⁴ Ḥassān, Sulaymān b. b. Juljul, Ṭabaqāt al-aṭibbā' wa-'l-ḥukamā՚, ed. Sayyid, Fu'ād (Cairo: Matba ՙat al-maՙhad al-ՙilmī 'l-faransī li-'l-āthār al-sharqiyya, 1955), 93–101.Google Scholar

²⁵ Qāsim, Aḥmad b. b. Abī Uṣaybiՙa, ՙUyūn al-anbā' fī ṭabaqāt al-aṭibbā՚, ed. Riḍā', Nizār (Beirut: Dār maktabat al-ḥayāh, 1965), 488.Google Scholar

²⁶ al-Khushanī, , Quḍāt Qurṭuba, 217.Google Scholar

²⁷ Quoted from Palacios, M. Asín, ‘El origen del lenguaje y problemas conexos, en Algazel, Ibn Sīda e Ibn Ḥazm’, Al-Andalus, 4, 1939, 264.Google Scholar

²⁸ Ferguson, Charles A., ‘Diglossia’, Word, 15, 1959, 336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁹ Quoted from al-ՙAzīz, ՙAbd al-Ahwānī, ‘AlfāẔ maghribiyya min kitāb Ibn Hishām al-Lakhmī fī lahn al-ՙamma’, Majallat maՙhad al-makhṭūtāt al-ՙarabiyya, 3, 1957, 133.Google Scholar

³⁰ Labov, William, The social stratification of English in New York City (Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1982), 19.Google Scholar

³¹ Bentahila, Abdelâli, Language attitudes among Arabic-French bilinguals in Morocco (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1983), 31–32.Google Scholar

³² Bellin, , ‘Welsh and English’, 462.Google Scholar

³³ Watt, W. M. and Bell, R., Introduction to the Qur'ān (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990), 7.Google Scholar

³⁴ Khaldūn, Ibn, al-Muqaddima (Beirut: Dār al-jīl, n.d.), 647–648.Google Scholar

³⁵ Forster, Leonard, The poet's tongues: multilingualism in literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 12.Google Scholar

³⁶ Stern, Charlotte, ‘Sayago and Sayagués in Spanish history and literature’, Hispanic Review, 29, 1961, 217–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁷ Text from Gāzī, Sayyid, Dīwān al-muwashshaḥāt al-andalusiyya (Alexandria: Mansha'at al-maՙārif, 1979), I, pp. 169–171Google Scholar. On the identity of this poet see Stern, Samuel M. ‘Muḥammad Ibn ՙUbāda al-Qazzāz, un andaluz autor de muwaššaḥas’, Al-Andalus 15, 1950, 79–109.Google Scholar

³⁸ cf. Rosen-Moked, ‘Towards the kharja’, a study to which I am greatly indebted in the analysis that follows.

³⁹ On the development of Western Arabic nfՙl/nfՙlū see Blau, Joshua, The emergence and linguistic background of Judaeo-Arabic (Jerusalem: Ben Zvi Institute for the Study of Jewish Communities in the East, 1981), 119–120Google Scholar; Wansbrough, John, ‘A Judaeo-Arabic document from Sicily’, BSOAS, 30/2, 1967, 305–313CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁰ See Jakobson, Roman, ‘Why “Mama” and “Papa”?’, in Kaplan, B. and Wapner, S. (ed.) Perspectives in psychological theory: Essays in honor of Heinz Werner (New York: International Universities Press, 1960), 124–134Google Scholar. The interpretation ‘titbit’ follows Gómez, Emilio Garcia, ‘Estudio del Dār aṭ-Ṭirāz: preceptiva egipcia de la muwaššaḥa’, Al-Andalus, 27, 1962, 74Google Scholar, rather than ‘sly’ (taimado) as suggested by Stern, , ‘Muḥammad Ibn ՙUbāda al-Qazzāz’, 103.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Text from Bishrī, ՙAlī b., ՙUddat al-jalīs, ed. Jones, Alan (Cambridge: E. J. W. Gibb Memorial, 1992), 33–35.Google Scholar

⁴² For the text of the kharja and its variants, see Jones, Alan, Romance kharjas in Andalusian Arabic muwaššaḥ poetry (London: Ithaca Press, 1988), 25–33Google Scholar. The use of a point is a typographical convenience which serves to indicate a vowel whose approximate quality cannot be determined from the textual evidence, and is equivalent to the schwa used by Jones.

⁴³ de Fuentes, Alvaro Galmés, Dialectología mozárabe (Madrid: Gredos, 1983), 86, 175, 201, 232Google Scholar; Torrejón, Leopoldo Peñarroja, El mozárabe de Valencia (Madrid: Gredos, 1990), 318.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Jones, , Romance kharjas, 30.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ See Abu-Haidar, J. A., ‘Diminutives in the dīwān of Ibn Quzmān: a product of their Hispanic milieu?’, BSOAS, 52/2, 1989, 239–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁶ Text from Bishrī, Ibn, ՙUddat al-jalīs, 187–188.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Labbayka (‘ at your service’) is a formula addressed to God during the pilgrimage until the stoning at the valley of Minā; ՙUmra is the lesser pilgrimage which may be performed in association with the Ḥajj; hadīy is a sacrificial animal slaughtered on iīd al-aḍḥā; jimār are three heaps of stones in the valley of Minā formed by the stones thrown by pilgrims returning from ՙArafāt, thought to symbolize the stoning of Satan.

⁴⁸ This is a speculative text eclectically drawn from strands of the complicated manuscript tradition. See the invaluable palaeographical analysis of Jones, , Romance kharjas, 76–95.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Quzmān, Ibn, Cancionero hispanoárabe, 144.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Whilst I retain full responsibility for the views expressed in this paper, I wish to record my gratitude to Dr Richard Hitchcock of the University of Exeter, Professor Pat Harvey of King's College, London, and Dr Jareer Abu-Haidar of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London, who generously gave their time to comment on the paper at various stages in its development.