Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T06:58:57.034Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The game of leaves: an inquiry into the origin of Chinese playing cards

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2009

Andrew Lo
Andrew Lo
Affiliation:
School of Oriental and African Studies
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

A passion for card games, like a delight in drinking tea, is something which nowadays unites China with the rest of the world; and, as with tea drinking, many have surmised that the pastime of playing cards arose in China and spread westwards. I begin this study with a consideration of the rules of card games, and suggest that the rules themselves may offer, in some cases, evidence of transmission from East to West. To those interested in past cultural contacts, this suggestion in itself illustrates the value of trying to reconstruct the regulations of early games long forgotten, quite apart from the value of such research to sinologists. But it is not just the rules of play which need to be considered in such a context. The format of the playing card as a physical object that is small, portable and suited to mass production has prompted the thought that cards may have been one of the easiest samples of Chinese printing technique to pass between East and West. For this reason, the main focus of my study in reconstruction is on a pastime, the yezi xi (game of leaves), which dates to about the same time as our earliest sources on the origins of printing, but which eventually died out, to be superseded by other amusements. Are the surviving materials sufficient to confirm or deny existing speculations about its form? And if this was not a card game, when precisely did such games develop? But before considering such sinological questions, let us start closer to home.

Type
Articles
Information
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , Volume 63 , Issue 3 , January 2000 , pp. 389 - 406
Copyright
Copyright © School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 See Carter, Thomas Frances, The invention of printing in China and its spread westwards (New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1925, 1955 (2nd edition)), 183–192.Google Scholar

2 Dummett, Michael, The game of Tarot (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1980), 10.Google Scholar

3 See the later section A Yuan dynasty date in this paper.

4 Von Leyden, Rudolf, Ganjifa: the playing cards of India (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1982), xii.Google Scholar

5 See, for example, Pan Zhiheng, Yezi pu, in Zongyi, Tao et al. , (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1989), x, juan 39, 1834Google Scholar. See also forthcoming article ‘The late Ming game of ma diao’ in The Playing-Card. For an introduction to Chinese card games, see Lo, Andrew, ‘Dice, dominoes and card games in Chinese literature: a preliminary survey’, in Wood, Frances (ed.), Chinese studies (British Library Occasional Papers, 10, London: The British Library, 1988), 127–134Google Scholar and Lo, Andrew, ‘Amusement literature in some early Ch'ing collectanea’ in Peterson, Willard J., Plaks, Andrew H., and Yu, Ying-shih (ed.), The power of culture: studies in Chinese cultural history (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1994), 275 303Google Scholar. The present article forms part of a forthcoming monograph on traditional Chinese card games. The author would like to thank Professor Tim Barrett for his suggestions for improvement.

6 See Carter, , The invention of printing in China, 184Google Scholar; Needham, Joseph, Science and civilisation in China, iv (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), 329Google Scholar; Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Paper and printing, in Needham, Joseph, Science and civilisation in China, v (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 131–132.Google Scholar

7 Ouyang Xiu, Gui tian lu, printed with Pizhi, Wang, Mianshui yantan lu (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1981), 31.Google Scholar

8 Yanti, Wang (ed.), Qingzhao, Li, Shu yu ji zhu (Shangdong: Shandong wenyi chubanshe, 1984), 124.Google Scholar

9 Wang Pizhi, Mianshui yantan lu, printed with Xiu, Ouyang, Gui tian lu (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1981), 110.Google Scholar

10 Su E, Tongchang gongzhu zhuan, in Zongyi, Tao et al. (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, VIII, juan 113, 5203–4.Google Scholar

11 Dingqiu, Peng et al. (comp.), Quart Tang shi (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1960), 8299.Google Scholar

12 He Guangyuan, Jian jie lu, in yun, Ji et al. (comp.), Siku quanshu (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1987), MXXXV, 883.Google Scholar

13 Tuo, Tuo et al. , Liao shi (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974), 87.Google Scholar

14 Quoted in Shihan, Wang, Yexi yuan qi, in Congmu Wangshi yishu (Changsha: Qiantang Wangshi, 1886), 3a.Google Scholar

15 Rucheng, Huang (ed.), Yanwu, Gu, Ri zhi lu jishi (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1985), 2117.Google Scholar

16 Xiu, Ouyang, Gui tian lu, 31.Google Scholar

17 Chuhou, Wu, Qingxiang zaji (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985), 87.Google Scholar

18 Pizhi, Wang, Mianshui yantan lu, 110.Google Scholar

19 Ganding lu (author unknown), in Fang, Li et al. , Taiping guangji (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1959), II, juan 136, 978.Google Scholar

20 Xiu, Ouyang, Gui tian lu, 31.Google Scholar

21 Ganding lu, 978.

22 Xiu, Ouyang, Qi, Song, Xin Tang shu (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1975), juan 59, 1561Google Scholar; Zheng Qiao, Tongzhi, in Yunwu, Wang (ed.), Shi tong, no 4 (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1935), juan 69, 810.Google Scholar

23 Fang Qianli, Touzi xuan ge, in Zongyi, Tao et al. , (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, VIII, 4688.Google Scholar

24 Bin, Liu, Han guan yi, in Wumujing ji qita yizhong, in Yunwu, Wang (ed.), Congshu jicheng chuhian (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1936).Google Scholar

25 ibid., 1.

26 ibid., 13.

27 Pizhi, Wang, Mianshui yantan lu, 110.Google Scholar

28 Wang Yaochen et al. (comp.), Chongwen zongmu, in Yun, Ji et al. (comp.), Siku quanshu, DCLXXIV, 78.Google Scholar

29 Qiao, Zheng, Tongzhi, juan 69, 810.Google Scholar

30 Meng, Sun (ed.), Gongwu, Chao, Junzhai dushu zhi jiaozheng (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1990), 695.Google Scholar

31 Duanlin, Ma, Wenxian tongkao, Jingji kao (Shanghai: Huadong shifan daxue chubanshe, 1985), 1295.Google Scholar

32 Tuo, Tuo et al. , Song shi (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1977), 5292.Google Scholar

33 Xiu, Ouyang, Gut tian lu, 31.Google Scholar

34 Huang Tingjian, Shangu bieji, in Yun, Ji et al. (comp.), Siku quanshu, MCXIII, 647–648Google Scholar. For a collection of anecdotes about Wu Cailuan, see Dehui, Ye, Shulin qinghua (Beijing: Zhonghua shju, 1987), 285–288.Google Scholar

35 Wang Hui, Yutang jiahua, in Yun, Ji et al. , Siku quanshu, DCCCLXVI, 459.Google Scholar

36 Mianliang, Qu, Zhongguo guji banke cidian (Jinan: Qilu shushe, 1999), 99, 552.Google Scholar

37 Hong Zun, Pu shuang, in Zongyi, Tao et al. (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, VIII, 4659.Google Scholar

38 Qingzhao, Li, Shu yu ji zhu, 124.Google Scholar

39 Hu Yinglin, Shaoshi shanfang bicong, printed with Ying, Zhou, Zhi lin (Taipei: Shijie shuju, 1980), 329.Google Scholar

40 Pizhi, Wang, Mianshui yantan lu, 110.Google Scholar

41 Following Hu Yinglin and reading the character wei as zheng. See Yinglin, Hu, Shaosh shanfang bicong, 327Google Scholar. For the story of Huang Ba, see Gu, Ban, Han shu (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1975), XI, 3632.Google Scholar

42 For Zhuang Zhou's dream, see Watson, Burton (trans.), Chuang Tzu (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1964), 45.Google Scholar

43 Dingqiu, Peng et al. (comp.), Quan Tang shi, 8299.Google Scholar

44 See, for example, Lingshan Daoren, Jiya paigui, preface dated 1700, 6a; rare book in Beijing Library.

45 Pizhi, Wang, Mianshui yantanlu, 110.Google Scholar

46 Li Qingzhao, Dama tu, in Zongyi, Tao et al. (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, VIII, 4648–4651.Google Scholar

47 Zhongyong, Wang, (ed.), Shen, Yang, Sheng an shihua jianzheng (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1987), 514.Google Scholar

48 Wang Daokun, Shuqian ye pu, in Zongyi, Tao et al. (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, x, 1819–1825.Google Scholar

49 Xibian, Zhao, Junzhai dushu houzhi, 420.Google Scholar

50 Zhufeng, Luo (comp.), Hanyu dacidian XII, (Shanghai: Hanyu dacidian chubanshe, 1993), 1403.Google Scholar

51 Zhufeng, Luo (comp.), Hanyu dacidian v (Shanghai: Hanyu dacidian chubanshe, 1991), 114.Google Scholar

52 Yushi, Zhao, Bintui lu (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1983), 46.Google Scholar

53 Yingzhou is one of the five magical mountains which rest on 15 giant sea turtles. All the buildings on the mountain summits are made of gold and jade. A giant from the Elder Dragon Kingdom came fishing and got six of these giant turtles on his line in one go. See Bojun, Yang, Liezi jishi (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985), 151–154.Google Scholar

54 This refers to an encounter between Grand Councillor Li Shen (772 846) and the poet Zhang Hu (c. first half of the ninth century) in the year 844, when Zhang sent Li his calling card signed ‘The Fisher of Giant Sea Turtles’. Li asked Zhang how he would fish, and he gave the replies of the rainbow and the crescent moon. When asked what bait he would use [to get the turtles which represent outstanding talent], he replied ingratiatingly that he would use Grand Councillor Li. See He Guangyuan, , Jian jie lu, 908.Google Scholar

55 Zhang Yuan, Gaojian zhuibi, in Zongyi, Tao et al. (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, II, 719.Google Scholar

56 ibid.

57 ibid.

58 Zhensun, Chen, Zhizhai shulu jieti (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1987), 422.Google Scholar

59 Dantu xian wenjiaoju, Zhenjiang bowuguan, ‘Jiangsu dantu dingmaoqiao chutu Tangdai yinqi jiaocang’ in Wenwu II, 1982, 14–32.Google Scholar

60 Jiugao, Lu, Xing, Liu, ‘Lunyu yuzhu kao lue’ in Wenwu 11, 1982, 35.Google Scholar

61 Yushi, Zhao, Bintui lu, 45.Google Scholar

62 ibid., 46.

63 Cao Shao, Anyatang jiuling, in Zongyi, Tao et al. , (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, II, 851–858.Google Scholar

64 Cao Jishan, Anyatang gonglü, in Zongyi, Tao et al. , (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, VII, 4302–4317Google Scholar. Jishan is the style name of Cao Shao.

65 For the story of the man from Qi, see Lau, D. C. (trans.), Mencius (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970), 137.Google Scholar

66 Shao, Cao, Anyatang jiuling, 852, 855Google Scholar. The title of the second poem is probably a mistake. Tu Benjun's version has the title ‘At a banquet with King Zhuang of Cliu, cap ribbons are plucked’. See Jishan, Cao, Anyatang gonglu, 4304Google Scholar. This refers correctly to a banquet held by King Zhuang when the lamps and candles went out and someone then pulled at the robes of a beauty. She in turn pulled off the ribbon fastener of his cap as a mark and told the King what had happened and wanted him to have the lights back on. King Zhuang refused, and ordered everyone to pull the ribbon off his cap before having the lights back on. Two years later, a vassal distinguished himself in a battle and it turned out to be the grateful person with the frisky hands. See Shanyi, Zhao (ed.), Xiang, Liu, Shuo yuan zhuzheng (Shanghai: Huadong shifan daxue chubanshe, 1985), 143–144.Google Scholar

67 Yizhi, Fang, Tong ya (Beijing: Zhongguo shudian, 1990), 428.Google Scholar

68 Lianggong, Zhou, Shuying (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1981), 143.Google Scholar

69 Ruan Kuisheng, Chayu kehua, printed with Mingyu, Hu, Ding e zalu (Taipei: Zhonghua shuju, 1963), 551.Google Scholar

70 Yi, Zhao, Gai yu congkao (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1957), 711.Google Scholar

71 Yixing, Hao, Zheng su wen, in Ming Qing suyu cishu jicheng (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1989), III, 2384.Google Scholar

72 Carter, , The invention of printing in China, 184.Google Scholar

73 ibid.

74 Zhaozhe, Xie, Wu zazu, in Guoxue zhenben wenku (Shanghai: Zhongyang shudian, 1935), I, no 13, 253.Google Scholar

75 Qu You, Xuanhe paipu, in Zongyi, Tao et al. , (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, x, 1790–1798.Google Scholar

76 Pan Zhiheng, Xu yezi pu, in ibid., 1842.

77 Zhou Mi, Wulin jiushi, printed with Meng Yuanlao, Dongjing menghualu, Naideweng, Ducheng jisheng, Xihu Laoren, Xihu laoren fanshenglu and Zimu, Wu, Mengliang lu (Beijing: Zhongguo shangye chubanshe, 1982), 127.Google Scholar

78 Rong, Lu, Shuyuan zaji (Beijing, Zhonghua shuju, 1985), 184.Google Scholar

79 Pu, Zhang (comp.), Wanbao quanshu, 1758 Wanjuanlou edition, juan 13, 6b 7a., (London: School of Oriental and African Studies Library).Google Scholar

80 Needham, (ed.), Science and civilisation in China, IV, 329.Google Scholar

81 Tsuen-hsuin, Tsien, Paper and printing, 131–132.Google Scholar

82 Yinglin, Hu, Shaoshi shanfang bicong, 328–329.Google Scholar

83 Shihan, Wang, Ye xi yuan qi, 1.Google Scholar

84 Nanxian, Zhu, Zhongguo xiangqishi congkao (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1987), 41.Google Scholar

85 Rong, Lu, Shuyuan zaji, 173–174.Google Scholar

86 Pan Zhiheng, Yezi pu and Xu yezi pu, in Zongyi, Tao et al. , (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong. x, 1834–1842.Google Scholar

87 Xiu, Ouyang, Gui tian lu, 31.Google Scholar

88 Li Qingzhao, Dama tu, in Zongyi, Tao et al. (comp.), Shuo fu sanzhong, VIII, 4647.Google Scholar

89 Yang Weizhen, Chuhong pu, in ibid., 4674. In his preface, Yang Weizhen (1296–1370) attributes the work to Zhu He.

90 Rong, Lu, Shuyuan zaji, 173.Google Scholar

91 Mi, Zhou, Wulin jiushi, 51, 128.Google Scholar

92 Xihu Laoren, Xihu laoren fanshenglu, 12, 18. Wu Zimu's Mengliang lu (A dream of splendour while the millet is cooking; the preface is dated 1274), describes many events in detail from the period 1241–74: dice, pai'er (cards? dominoes?), and tie'r (tokens?) are mentioned. Zimu, Wu, Mengliang lu, 46.Google Scholar

93 Mingben dazi yingyong suijin, in Zhongyang yinyue xueyuan zhongguo yinyue yanjiusuo, , (comp.), Zhongguo gudai yinyue shiliao jiyao, I (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1962), 727.Google Scholar

94 Dayuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang (compiler unknown) (Taipei: Guoli gugong bowuyuan, 1976)Google Scholar, Dianzhang section, juan 57, 20b 21a.

95 See Japanese reprint as Jo Genzui, Rigaku shinan, appended to Anonymous, , Kyoka hitsuyo jirui (Kyoto: Chubun shuppansha, 1984), 344.Google Scholar

96 Shi, Cai, Guanhua huijie bianlan, in Ming Qing su yu cishu jicheng, II, 1580.Google Scholar

97 Defu, Shen, Wanli ye huo bian (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1980), 516.Google Scholar

98 Rong, Lu, Shuyuan zaji, 173–174.Google Scholar

99 For actual playing cards from the Ming period, we may note the card found near Turfan and which is given a probable date of about 1400 a.d., See Carter, , The invention of printing in China after p. 184Google Scholar; Tsuen-hsuin, Tsien, Paper and printing, 310Google Scholar. The same card is given in Culin, Stewart, ‘The game of ma-jong: its origin and significance’, in The Brooklyn Museum Quarterly, (New York: Brooklyn Museum, 1924), plate 2, after p. 10Google Scholar, and is dated no later than the eleventh century a.d. This card depicts a man frontally with two characters each at the top and bottom, which I read to mean ‘Made by Guan Huan? he’. There is an illustration of 30 traditional but undated cards from Yan'an, Shaanxi Province, and one card depicts a man frontally with two characters each at the top and bottom, which I read to mean ‘Made by Guan Qixing’. The character ‘Guan’ in the second card does not have a ‘bamboo’ radical like that in the first card, but otherwise, the similarity is intriguing. See Shengzhong, Lu, Zhongguo minjian muke banhua (Changsha: Hunan meishu chubanshe, 1990, reprinted 1995), 154.Google Scholar

A second card is in the National Museum, Delhi, and I am grateful to Mr John Gosling for providing me with the information and a photograph. The card depicts a man with a child, and in my opinion refers to the Water margin hero Zhu Tong babysitting the son of a prefect. Later cards from the Qing period will bear out this conclusion. See, for example, the card with the two characters Zhu Tong and depicting Zhu Tong and a boy illustrated in Culin, , ‘The game of ma-jong’, plate 3, after p. 12.Google Scholar