An Apocalyptic Vision of Islamic History

Bernard Lewis

doi:10.1017/S0041977X00083488

An Apocalyptic Vision of Islamic History

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2009

Bernard Lewis

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During the first four centuries of Islamic rule Messianic hopes ran high among the peoples of the Caliphate. Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians, subjected to the rule of a new and alien religion, cherished and embellished their traditions of a Messiah or Saoshyant of a God-chosen line who, in God's time, would come or return to the world, end the sufferings of the faithful and the dominion of their opponents, and establish the kingdom of God upon earth. Before very long Islam itself was affected. First in the heresies of the newly-converted, dissatisfied with the status assigned to them in what was still an Arab kingdom, grafting their old beliefs on their new faith; then in the orthodoxy of all Islam, the belief arose in a MaMhdī, a “ divinely guided one ” who, in the words of the tradition, would “ fill the earth with justice and equity as it is now filled with tyranny and oppression ”.

With the passing of empires and the flowering and disappointment of successive hopes, the tradition of the Coming grew and developed. One oppressor after another added something of himself to the portraits of the Antichrist, while the many false Messiahs, in their failure, bequeathed new details and new tokens to the Messiah yet to come. Each group had its own traditions; yet they were in no way separate and water-tight, and many ideas and beliefs passed, through converts and other channels, from one religion to another.

By no means the least impatient in their expectation of Redemption were the Jews. When the crumbling of empires under the blows of internal revolutions and external invasions seemed to portend the long awaited end, anxious Jewish eyes scanned the Time of Troubles in which they lived for signs of the coming of Messiah, and sought to identify, in the events taking place about them, the vague prophecies and traditions handed down to them of the last wars of the Messiah. It was in such times that the apocalyptic books were written.

Type: Research Article
Information: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , Volume 13 , Issue 2 , June 1950 , pp. 308 - 338

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00083488 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 1950

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References

^{page 309 note 1} Jellinek, A.: Bet ha-Midrasch, Leipzig, 1855, vol. iv, pp. viii-ix and 117–126.Google Scholar Reprinted Jerusalem, 1938. The text was re-edited, with an introduction and notes, by J. Kaufman in Tel-Aviv, 1943, pp. 254–286 and 411–14. Dr. Kaufman's edition contains mainly valuable suggestions, but its value is reduced by his numerous and often pointless emendations.

^{page 309 note 2} Jellinek: BM., iii, pp. xix and 78–82. A Geniza fragment containing a variant version of the opening paragraphs of the Secrets was published by S. Wertheimer under the title in Bā, Jerusalem, 1894, vol. ii, pp. 25–6. There is also a version of this work in Munich Hebrew MS. No. 222, 107v-lllv, with one major and a few minor variants from the Salonica text. My thanks are due to Dr. A. Spitaler for sending me photographs of this MS.

^{page 309 note 3} Geschichte der Juden, v, note 16, pp. 441–9.

^{page 309 note 4} “ Apocalypsen mit polemischer Tendenz ”, ZDMG., xxviii, 1874, pp. 627–659, and xxix, 1875, pp. 162–5. See especially pp. 635 et seq.

^{page 309 note 5} Bē Eqed Ha-Aggadō, ed. H. M. Horvitz, 1891, i, pp. 16–32. Jellinek's text of the Secrets and the relevant passage from Horvitz's text of the Ten Kings are reprinted in Kaufman, pp. 401–5. Dr. Kaufman's ingenious attempt (pp. 162–198) to reconstruct an Urtext from the different versions is better left aside.

^{page 309 note 6} BM., iv, p. viii.

^{page 309 note 7} Geschickte, vii, note 7, pp. 449–451.

^{page 310 note 1} Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. i, s.v. “ Apocalypses: Neo-Hebraic Apocalyptic Literature ”, p. 684.

^{page 310 note 2} “ Eine jüdische Messiasprophetie auf das Jahr 1186 und der dritte Kreuzzug ”, MQWJ., lxx, 1926, pp. 113–122 and 155–165. See especially pp. 162–5.

^{page 310 note 3} Mid. G., pp. 254 et seq.

^{page 310 note 4} Mid. G., pp. 162–174.

^{page 311 note 1} I read , as in all the other versions.

^{page 312 note 1} Sic. Probably an error for the Kenite, v. infra, p. 321.

^{page 312 note 2} Presumably Palestine.

^{page 312 note 3} . Thus also in the Geniza fragment of the Secrets. The printed and Munich texts of the Secrets have —terror.

^{page 313 note 1} . The Secrets has —“ From the good deeds of Ethan the Ezrahite ”, who in Midrashic writings is often Abraham.

^{page 313 note 2} New paragraph in Jellinek's text.

^{page 313 note 3} .

^{page 313 note 4} —sheep. Kaufman emends to —Zion.

^{page 313 note 5} , read , as in the Secrets.

^{page 313 note 6} , read , as in the Secrets.

^{page 314 note 1} . This seems to be a corrupt version of the phrase in the Secrets .

^{page 314 note 2} The text has ‘Mōshlīm—an obvious scribal error. I have restored the version of the Secrets.

^{page 314 note 3} . Perhaps an allusion to Job, where the word chiefly occurs, and usually denotes wisdom and experience (e.g. xii, 12 and xxxii, 6).

^{page 315 note 1} New paragraph in Jellinek's text.

^{page 315 note 2} —probably used in the sense of the Arabic .

^{page 316 note 1} . Kaufman emends the last word to , and reads “ until our Master comes ”.

^{page 316 note 2} Missing in the text. I restore in accordance with the sense and the parallel texts (cf. p. 334 infra).

^{page 316 note 3} , read ?

^{page 316 note 4} Jellinek suggests an emendation to “ the legs are broken even to the fingers (= toes) ”.

^{page 317 note 1} Sic. Bead Ishmael ?

^{page 317 note 2} . Jellinek emends to .

^{page 317 note 3} . Jellinek emends to , Kaufman to . I have adopted the latter reading.

^{page 317 note 4} New paragraph in Jellinek's text.

^{page 318 note 1} Presumably Palestine.

^{page 318 note 2} —i.e. the ignorant mass of the population.

^{page 319 note 1} A word in the text is effaced here.

^{page 319 note 2} A reference to the first two commandments.

^{page 322 note 1} The Geniza fragment reads “ He raises over them a crazy prophet, possessed by a spirit, and he conquers the land for them and they come and seize dominion in greatness and there will be great enmity between them and the sons of Esau ” (Wertheimer, pp. 25–6). The Munich MS. (107v) offers a third reading, closer to this version than to the printed text. (Cf. Steinschneider, “ Apcoalypsen… ”, ZDMG., xxviii, p. 635, note 25.)

^{page 322 note 2} . read ?

^{page 323 note 1} Cf. Ibn al-Qalānisī, , ed. Amedroz, Beirut, 1908, pp. 136–7 ( = Gibb, H. A. R., The Damascus Chronicle, of the Crusades, London, 1932, pp. 47–9)Google Scholar ; Ibn al-, al-Kāmil fī't-Ta'rīkh, ed. Torn berg, Leiden, 1851–1876, x, 193–4 (= Recaeil des Historiens des Croisades, Paris, 1841 ff., Historiens Orientaux I, pp. 198–9); Ibn Muyassar, Annales d'Egypte, ed. Massé, Cairo, 1919, p. 39 (= Recueil, Hist. Or., III, 463–4).

^{page 323 note 2} Mid. Q., pp. 162–174.

^{page 323 note 3} This is the Rabbi Ishmael to whom fifteen prophecies concerning the actions of the Arab conquerors are attributed in the Pirqē d'Rabbī Eli'ezer, chapter 30 (English translation by G. Friedlander, London, 1916, p. 221). This work was used by the compiler of the Ten Kings.

^{page 323 note 4} This version also appears in the Geniza and Munich versions of the Secrets. The first has , the second . it is possible that the salonica version is an editorial emendation intended to forestall objections from the Muslim authorities; but the disagreement between the Geniza and Munich versions makes it likelier that they are in-dependent revisions, and that the Salonica version is authentic.

^{page 323 note 5} Cf. A. Berliner, Quellenschriften zur jüldischen Geschichte und Literatur, I, Frankfurt, 1896, pp. ix-x.

^{page 324 note 1} Cf. J. Mann, “ A Polemical Work against Karaite and other Sectaries ”, JQR., n.s. xii, 1921–2, pp. 123–150; J. Leveen, “ Mohammad and his Jewish Companions ”, JQR., n.s. xvi, 1925–6, pp. 399–406; M. Schwabe, “Mohammed's Ten Jewish Companions ”, Tarbiz, ii, 1930, pp. 74–89. A Christian form of the legend occurs in Theophanes (ed. De Boor i, 342), and thence in the De Administrando Imperio of Constantine X. For a discussion see the commentary to the forthcoming English translation of the last-named work.

^{page 324 note 2} Cf. G. von Grunebaum, Medieval Islam, Chicago, 1946, pp. 17–18.

^{page 324 note 3} —a literal equivalent of the Arabic .

^{page 325 note 1} .

^{page 325 note 2} Cf. Genesis x, 27. This is usually equated with Hadramawt.

^{page 325 note 3} A common term for the Arabs in Hebrew literature.

^{page 325 note 4} . A very slight emendation gives —Marwān.

^{page 325 note 5} read .

^{page 325 note 6} Munich MS. reads: “ They will have food with them, but he will withhold it from them and not give it to them. ”

^{page 325 note 7} . Graetz emends to , Steinschneider (p. 638, n. 25) connects with the Arabic root . Either could bear the meaning cross-eyed. The word may be connected with from σαφινις (cf. Hirschberg and Lippert, Die Augenheilkunde des Ibn Sina, Leipzig, 1902, p. 172).

^{page 326 note 1} . Kaufman suggests an emendation to “ and his; buildings ”.

^{page 326 note 2} .

^{page 326 note 3} , read .

^{page 326 note 4} Munich MS. adds: “ The staff is none other than Ishmael. ”

^{page 326 note 5} . Munich MS. reads —Euphrates.

^{page 327 note 1} Gesckichte, v, loc. cit.

^{page 327 note 2} “ Apocalypsen ”, loc. cit.

^{page 327 note 3} Israel Lévi, “ Une Apocalypse Judéo-Arabe ”, RÉJ., lxix, 1914, pp. 177–182. Cf. Wertheimer, ii, p. 30.

^{page 327 note 4} Ṭabarī, Annales, Leiden, 1879–1901, ii, 1316; cf. Kitāb al-'Uyūn (in Fragmenta Hisioricum Arabicorum, ed. De Goeje, Leiden, 1871), p. 29; Ibn al-, v, p. 18.

^{page 327 note 5} Cf. the interesting observations of Sauvaget, J., “Bemarques sur les Monuments Omeyyades”, JA., 1939, pp. 1–13.Google Scholar

^{page 327 note 6} E.g. Mas'ūdī, Murūj, ed. Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille, Paris, 1861–1877, T, p. 466;Taribīh, ed. De Goeje, Leiden, 1894, p. 322 (= De Vaux, Carra, Le Livre de L'Avertisse-merit, Paris, 1897, p. 417).Google Scholar

^{page 327 note 7} Cf. Gabrieli, F., Il Califfato di Hishām, Alexandria, 1935, p. 139.Google Scholar

^{page 327 note 8} ibid., p. 141.

^{page 327 note 9} ii, 1803. Quoted by I. Braslavski, “ Hat Walīd II den Jordan ablenken wollen ? ”, JPOS., xiii, 1933, pp. 97–100.

^{page 328 note 1} Études sur le Siècle des Omeyyades, Beirut, 1930, p. 348 et seq. Cf. Sauvaget, “ Remarques ”, pp. 31–5.

^{page 328 note 2} “ Apooalypsen ”, ZDMG., xxviii, pp. 638–645.

^{page 329 note 1} Geschichte, v, p. 449, and vii, p. 449 et seq.

^{page 329 note 2} Silver, A. H., Messianic Speculation in Israel, New York, 1927, p. 47.Google Scholar

^{page 329 note 3} . I can find no meaning for this expression which occurs in both the printed and Munich texts. An emendation of the final to would give “ a clownish man ”, which hardly seems satisfactory.

^{page 330 note 1} , read .

^{page 330 note 2} Taribīh, p. 339 (= Carra de Vaux, p. 436). On the “ humility ” of , v. A. K. Dūrī, Al-'Ar al-'Abbāsī al-Awwal, Baghdad, 1945, pp. 65–6.

^{page 330 note 3} Tanbīh, p. 341 (= Carra de Vaux, p. 439); cf. Ṭabarī, iii, 391.

^{page 331 note 1} Mannorstein, A., “Les Signes da Messie”, RéJ., Iii, 1906, pp. 176–186 (of. Kaufman, p. 294 and p. 311).Google Scholar

^{page 331 note 2} Graetz, Geschichte, v, 198.

^{page 331 note 3} S. Assaf and L. A. Mayer (editors), Sefer hay-. Jerusalem, 1944, ii, p. 70.

^{page 331 note 4} Silver, Messianic Speculation, pp. 40–1.

^{page 331 note 5} Chiefly Qirqisānī. But for a dissenting view see I. Friedländer, “ Jewish Arabic Studies ”, JQR., n.s. i, 1910–11, pp. 183–215, especially 203 ff.

^{page 331 note 6} New paragraph in Jellinek's text.

^{page 331 note 7} Eine jüldische Messiasprophetie, pp. 162 et seq.

^{page 332 note 1} Mid. G., p. 277.

^{page 332 note 2} Eine jüd. Mess., p. 165.

^{page 332 note 3} Mid. G., pp. 281 et seq.

^{page 333 note 1} The chief contemporary source for these events is ibn Sinān, of whom I am now preparing an edition. Other main sources are Ibn al-Qalānisī (pp. 1–21); Ibn al-A, viii, 462–3, 469–472, 483–5; Maqrīzī, , ed. Bunz, Leipzig, 1909, pp. 100 and 130 et seq. Cf. Goeje, De, Mémoire sur les Garmathes… Leiden, 1886, pp. 187–195.Google Scholar

^{page 333 note 2} Schlumberger, V. G., L'Éipopée Byzantine,, Paris, 1896, i, 280–308.Google Scholar

^{page 333 note 3} Text in Kaufman, p. 135. On corresponding Christian beliefs cf. Vasiliev, A. A., History of the Byzantine Empire, Madison, 1928, i, p. 290.Google Scholar

^{page 333 note 4} .

^{page 333 note 5} Text in Jellinek, iii, p. 141 (cf. Kaufman, pp. 102–3).

^{page 334 note 1} Text in Jellinek, iii, p. 71. He suggests (p. xix) a Persian origin, in the Gaonic period.

^{page 335 note 1} Published by Zotenberg, H., “Geschichte Daniels”, Archivfiir Wissenschaftliche Erforschung des Alten Testamentes, i, 1867–9, pp. 385–427.Google Scholar

^{page 335 note 2} ibid., pp. 412–13.

^{page 335 note 3} From an Armenian word meaning red shoes. See Schlumberger, L'Épopée, p. 4, n. 2.

^{page 335 note 4} The “ King of fierce countenance ” may even be a direct allusion to the word Carmathian, one possible etymology of which is from Qarmata, to frown or wrinkle the face. Cf. Lewis, , The Origins of Ismā'īlīsm, Cambridge, 1940, pp. 82–3.Google Scholar I am indebted to Dr. D. S. Rice for this suggestion.

^{page 336 note 1} The text of such an appeal of later date is preserved in the Risālat as-Safar ilā's-Sāda, a Druze letter to the Carmathians of Baḥrain, written in 1058 (MS. Paris, Arabe, 1424, ff. 172–3).

^{page 336 note 2} Sefer hay-Yiūbh. ii, p. 70; Kaufman, pp. 154–160.