^{page 517 note 1} The Italian students of Sanskrit, Sassetti (1581-8) and de Nobili (d. 1656) were the exceptions proving the rule.

^{page 517 note 2} The Tamil teacher and interpreter employed by Ziegenbalg in 1706-7 was, we are told, expeEed from Tranquebar and subsequently kept in irons in a Tanjore prison, accused “d'avoir trahi la Religion, et d'en avoir révélé les Mystères le plus secrets aux deux Missionaires de Tranquebar!” La Croze, Histoire du Christianisme des Indes, tome ii, p. 391.

^{page 517 note 3} Especially Cassiano Beligatti di Macerata, also joint author of the Alphabetum Tangutanum sive Tibetanum (1773). Worked in the Tibet-Nepal Mission. In Lhasa 1741-2, then twelve years in Nepal and occasionally in Patna. Died in Macerata 1785.

^{page 518 note 1} Most of these earlier works are mentioned in the Linguistic Survey of India. See vol. iv, pp. 302, 350; vol. v, p. 18; vol. ix, pp. 6, 7, etc.

^{page 519 note 1} 1st June, 1726.

^{page 520 note 1} The Alphabetum Brammhanicum mentions a “MSS. Lexicon, Linguae Indostanicæ in Bibliotheca Collegii Urbani de Propaganda Fide, quod Auctorem habet Franciscum M. Turonensem ex Capuccinorum Familia, qui ipsum in Suratensi Missione, quae eidem erat concredita, concinnavit, ac dein dono dedit Sacrae huic nostrae Congregationi a.d. III Nonas Quinctiles anni (1704).” This MSS. is said to contain 489 pages in pt. i and 423 in pt. ii, giving Latin words in alphabetical order in the first column, “altera Indostanicas Nagaricis apicibus exaratas.” On the opposite page the Latin words are said to be written and explained in French in the first column and in the second, the “voces Indostanas” are, “quantum potis est,” also written and explained in French.

^{page 520 note 2} b. 1683, d. 1719. For further details of his life and work see La Croze, Histoire du Christianisme des Indes, a La Haye aux depens de la Compagnie, 3rd edition, 1758, vol. ii, pp. 384 ff.

^{page 521 note 1} Of this support La Croze, who was an admirer of England, remarks “Rien n'est plus édifiant que la charité de la Nation Angloise, qui se signala en cette occasion”, loc. cit., 2nd ed., vol. ii, p. 416.

^{page 521 note 2} Cf. my “Short Outline of Tamil Pronunciation” in Arden's Grammar, p. vi.

^{page 521 note 3} See Alphabetum Grandonico-Malabaricum, 1772, p. xxi.

^{page 521 note 4} A Handbook of the, Tamil Language, 5th edition, 1895, p. 2.

^{page 522 note 1} See torn, i, letter xiii, p. 16; torn, iii, letter ix, pp. 22, 23; letter xlii, p. 85; and letter cccxix, pp. 381 et seq. 'ai entre les mains les Alphabets Tartares de Tangut, et des Manchous, ceux de Bengale, de Ceylan, de Malabar, de Siam, etc., en partie manuscrits, et en partie imprimés; et je n'ai point eu de peine à me convaincre, que tous ces alphabets n'ont eu autrefois qu'une seule et même origine.” La Croze, loc. cit., tome ii, p. 246. See also p. 353.

^{page 523 note 1} Cassiano Beligatti, mainly responsible for the Alphabetum.

^{page 523 note 2} Alph. Brammh., pp. xii, xiii.

^{page 524 note 1} Noël-Aimfield (on retroflex consonants) in General Phonetics, pp. 98-100.

^{page 525 note 1} My own observations of the pronunciation of a native of Trivandrum made some years ago seemed to indicate that the lax intervocalic consonants here referred to were only feebly voiced and often fricative.

^{page 526 note 1} “Ex intimis” is a very good guess at the motor background of the aspirated consonants, which are single stroke efforts, the release of the stop synchronizing with a “kick” of the diaphragm, etc. Cf. “ex pectore” above.

^{page 527 note 1} My attention was first drawn to the Alphabetum Barmanorum by my friend and colleague, Mr. G. E. Harvey, Lecturer in the Indian Institute, Oxford, who also very kindly wrote the note on the Mission, quoted below. Carpani knew both Ava and Pegu, spending seven years in Rangoon. Bishop Percoto sent him to Rome with ”accurate information” about the mission, Burma, and the language. There is a short note on the Alphabetum by Luce, E. in the Journal of the Burma Research Society, 08, 1914, p. 144.Google Scholar

“The Catholic mission was small but already old when the first Protestant missionary landed in 1813. Indeed, there had always been a couple of Goanese priests in Burma from the sixteenth century onwards, under the Portuguese hierarchy in India, but they confined themselves to the feringhi colony and were, in addition, only semi-literate. The first mission, that of the Missions Etrangères de Paris (now the dominant Catholic mission in Burma), lasted only four years, 1689–1693, and ended in martyrdom, but it was followed by an unbroken succession of Italian Barnabites, 1721–1832, and it is to these that we owe our first studies of the language. There can be little doubt that both Judson, the founder of the American Baptist Mission in 1813, who wrote the first great dictionary, and the American Baptists whose studies thereafter held the field, were indebted, if only indirectly, to early Catholic MSS. which no longer survive, the bulk perishing in the fire of 1840 which burned down the headquarters mission station at Chanthayua in Shwebo district. Within four years of their arrival in 1721 the Barnabite Fathers had compiled a small dictionary, and in the next few decades they wrote MS. grammars and bilingual devotional works, but the first printed work was the Alphabetum. Its author, Melchior Carpani, who arrived in 1767 and does not seem to have returned after leaving for Rome in 1774, was stabbed by one of the Goanese priests, who persistently resented the intrusion of the Barnabites, men of a high type, whose mere presence inevitably invited comparisons; his first edition, 1776, was doubtless based on the work of his colleagues, and the second, 1787, was revised by Mantegazza. Fr. Caejetan Mantegazza, arriving in 1772, died as bishop in 1794 at Amarapura, the then capital where his tombstone still exists; when sailing for Rome in 1784 he took with him two Burmese converts, one of whom, an ex-Buddhist monk and hence a scholar, assisted in the printing, at Rome, not only of the Alphabetum but also of a Burmese prayer book, catechism, and dialogues. Fr. Johannes Maria Percoto, who, mourned by the author of the Alphabetum as a better scholar than himself, arrived in 1761 and died as bishop in 1776 at Ava the then capital—the Burmese periodically changed their capitals—left translations of epistles and gospels, Genesis, Daniel, Tobias, St. Matthew, prayers, catechism, etc., and a Burmese-Latin-Portuguese dictionary, some of which seem to survive in the Library of the College of the Propaganda at Rome. See Bishop Bigandet, Outline of the History of the Catholic Mission, 1720-1887, Rangoon, Hanthawaddy Press, 1887; Hosten and Luce, Bibliotheca Catholica Birmanica, Rangoon, British Burma Press, 1916; G. E. Harvey, History of Burma (Longmans, 1925), pp. 214, 230, 253, 278, 345, 349”.

^{page 529 note 1} See my “Notes on the Transcription of Burmese”, Bulletin S.O.S., Vol. VII, Part I, 1933, also the remarks thereon of Professor Trubetzkoy in his recent Anleitung zu phonologischen Beschreibungen, 1935, p. 29.

^{page 529 note 2} In Modern Korean the final voiceless stops p, t, k, are held, and quietly released. There ia no plosion. But they do not seem to have given place to the glottal stop.

^{page 534 note 1} Story from Armstrong and Pe Maung Tin's Burmese Reader, p. 41. Recorded on H.M.V. C1181.

^{page 537 note 1} Afterwards referred to as A.U.CX.

^{page 537 note 2} See A.U.C.L., pp. 126-9, by Professor Caferoglu, of Constantinople. And p. 136, by Professor Rossi, of Rome.

^{page 537 note 3} A.U.C.L., p. 92.

^{page 538 note 1} See A.U.C.L., pp. 124–5. Italics Professor Caferolu's.

^{page 538 note 2} See A.U.C.L., pp. 133–4, by Professor Rossi, the official Soviet report on p. 161, and a report on Romanization in the U.S.S.R. by Professor Braun, of Leipzig, pp. 142 seq.

^{page 539 note 1} A.U.C.L., p. 34. Professor D. Westermann reporting on Africa.

^{page 539 note 2} A.U.C.L., p. 48, reporting on the peoples of the Caucasus.

^{page 540 note 1} In his Theory of Speech and Language, Oxford, 1932.Google Scholar

^{page 541 note 1} See my “Use and Distribution of Certain English Sounds”, English Studies, February, 1935. Also my “Technique of Semantics”, in Transactions of the Philological Society of Great Britain, 1935.

^{page 542 note 1} A.U.C.L., p. 43, by M. Martini, of Paris.

^{page 543 note 1} See my “Use and Distribution of certain English Sounds”, English Studies, Feb., 1935.Google Scholar

^{page 544 note 1} In the Alphabetum Barmanorum it is obvious from the way various types of syllables are presented in the traditional Burmese way, that the number and nature of the terms or possible “substituents” varies from context to context, and that a set of letters is not being set up as a functioning system in vacuo apart from context. Nevertheless, Carpani finds it necessary to issue the following warning: “Observandum tamen est non omnia quidem haec signa cum qualibet littera, aut syllaba coniungi vel solere, vel etiam posse.” That he should have gone out of his way to say this shows that he realized the common mistake of regarding a set of letters as a whole as free units or terms in a sort of mathematical relationship.

^{page 544 note 2} See Twaddell, “On defining the Phoneme,” Language Monograph No. XVI, pp. 10 ff. and 25 ff.

^{page 546 note 1} See a review in Neue Schiveizer Eundsahau, July, 1935, pp. 176–8Google Scholar, by Fritz Giittinger. “Zu den nachhaltigsten Eindrūeken, welche man von der programmatischen Sehrift J. R. Firth's über den Sprechvorgang, wie auch von seiner Lehrtätigkeit am University College London davonträgt, gehört die Einsicht, dass die Spielregeln der Spraehe und des Sprechens im Grunde etwas viel Roherea sind, als man zu glauben gewohnt ist. Was für Folgen dies für die allgemeine Sprachtheorie hat, brauoht hier nicht ausgeführt zu werden. Daraus, dass das Zweckhafte, Handlungsmässige der Worte und Sätze zur Betrachtung abgesondert wird, ergibt sich letzten Endes die Notwendigkeit, die Formenwelt nach streng formalen Gesichtspunkten zu beschreiben …”

^{page 546 note 2} A.U.C.L., p. 174.