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² ‘Workplace democracy’ here means some degree of collective ownership (worker or societal) of the means of production and workers' control.

³ Part of the reason that few Western works on Yugoslav self-management have dealt with strikes is that reliable information about them is relatively scarce.

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⁸ Dahrendorf, , Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society, Chaps. 1–3Google Scholar; see also Parkin, Frank, Class Inequality and Political Order (New York: Praeger, 1971), Chaps. I and 5.Google Scholar

⁹ See issues of the party journal. Socialist Thought and Practice, for countless discussions of Yugoslav socialist democracy and self-management.

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¹⁷ Tanić, Živan, ‘Social Composition of Workers' Councils in Yugoslavia’, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 111 (1967), 19–40.Google Scholar It should be noted that the bias towards socio-economically advantaged individuals in workers' council membership is greater than that found in relation to membership in other types of self-government activities or in relation to less direct forms of citizen participation; see Verba, Sidney and Shabad, Goldie, ‘Workers' Councils and Political Stratification: The Yugoslav Experience’, American Political Science Review, LXXII (1978), 80–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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²¹ Obradović, , ‘Distribution of Participation…’, pp. 144–62Google Scholar; Kavčić, Bogdan, Rus, Veljko and Tannenbaum, Arnold S., ‘Control, Participation, and Effectiveness in Four Yugoslav Industrial Organizations’, Administrative Science Quarterly, XVI (1971), 74–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rus, Veljko, ‘Influence Structure in Yugoslav Enterprises’, Industrial Relations, IX (1970), 148–60.Google Scholar

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²⁶ To place this figure in comparative perspective would require considerable effort and more reliable data than is currently available. However, cursory calculations on the basis of International Labour Office statistics on strikes in Western Europe and the United States suggest that, after taking into consideration the size of the economically active population, the frequency of strikes in Yugoslavia has been greater than in the Scandinavian and Benelux countries during the last two decades, but considerably lower than in France, Italy, Great Britain and the United States. See Yearbook of Labour Statistics (Geneva: International Labour Office). There is very little data with which to compare the incidence of strikes in Yugoslavia with that in other East European countries. Nevertheless, it would appear that, while manifestations of worker discontent, such as slowdown, absenteeism, and low productivity, are widespread in other East European countries, strikes are quite infrequent and when they do occur, as in Poland in 1970 and 1971, they tend to be far more intense and politically destabilizing than those in Yugoslavia.

²⁷ See Tornquist, David, ‘Strikes in Yugoslavia’, Working Papers for a New Society, 111 (1975), 50–61, pp. 56–7Google Scholar, for a detailed description of the Rijeka strike.

²⁸ Tornquist, , ‘Strikes in Yugoslavia’, p. 56.Google Scholar

²⁹ Tornquist, , ‘Strikes in Yugoslavia’, pp. 50–61Google Scholar; Jovanov, Neca, ‘Le rapport entre la grève comme conflit social et l'autogestion comme systeme social’, International Conference on Participation and Self-Management, 1 (1972), 62–96.Google Scholar Of the 512 strikes Jovanov investigated, 79 per cent lasted for one day or less and involved 69 per cent of all strike participants. For data on number of workers and man hours lost in West European and American strikes, see Yearbook on Labour Statistics (Geneva: International Labour Office), and Shorter, Edward and Tilly, Charles, Strikes in France 1830–1968 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974), Chap. 12.Google Scholar

³⁰ ‘Strikes. II: Yugoslavia: Neither Permitted Nor Forbidden’, p. 2Google Scholar; see also Jovanov, , ‘Le rapport entre la grève’. Table 19, p. 93Google Scholar, for data on the proportion of strikes supported by trade unions.

³¹ ‘Yugoslav Paper Again Discusses Workers’ Strikes', Radio Free Europe Background Report, 12 04 1973, p. 4.Google Scholar

³² These figures concern the causes of strikes that are internal to the work organization. Strikes are also caused by several factors exogenous to the workplace. See Jovanov, , ‘Le rapport entre la grève’, p. 89.Google Scholar

³³ Associated Labour Act.

³⁴ Arzensek, Vladimir, ‘Legitimnost Managementa: Pokušaj Institucionalne i Konsenzualne Analize’, in Obradović, Josip, Rus, Veljko and Županov, Josip, eds., Proizvodne Organizacije i Samoupravljanje (Zagreb: Odsjek za Sociologiju, Filosofski Fakultet, 1975), Table 9, p. 86.Google Scholar

³⁵ Jovanov, , ‘Le rapport entre la grève’, p. 92.Google Scholar

³⁶ Jovanov, . ‘Le rapport entre la grève’, pp. 92–3.Google Scholar

³⁷ ‘Top Yugoslav Party Official Approves Workers’ Strikes', Radio Free Europe Background Report/176, 7 04 1977Google Scholar; ‘Strikes. II: Yugoslavia: Neither Permitted Nor Forbidden’, p. 3.Google Scholar

³⁸ ‘Top Yugoslav Party Official Approves Workers’ Strikes.'

³⁹ ‘Yugoslav Draft Law Provides for Strikes’, Radio Free Europe Background Report/55, 24 03 1975.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ In many cases, strikes recur in the same enterprise within a relatively short span of time. See Jovanov, , ‘Le rapport entre la grève’, Table 6, p. 83.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Adizes, and Borgese, , Self-Management: New Dimensions to Democracy, pp. 67–70.Google Scholar See also, evaluations of self-management practice in issues of Socialist Thought and Practice.

⁴² See previous footnote.

⁴³ Kardelj, Edvard, ‘The Political System of Socialist Self-Management’, Socialist Thought and Practice, XVII (1977), No. 7–8, 3–26, p. 11Google Scholar; Adizes, and Borgese, , Self-Management: New Dimensions to Democracy, p. 131.Google Scholar

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⁴⁵ See articles in the Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, CCCCXXXI (1977).Google Scholar See also Emery, F. and Thorsrud, E., Form and Content in Industrial Democracy: Some Experiences from Norway and Other European Countries (London: Tavistock, 1969)Google Scholar; Jenkins, David, Job Power (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1974).Google Scholar

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⁴⁹ Mansbridge, Jane J., ‘Town Meeting Democracy’, Working Papers for a New Society, 1 (1973), 5–15.Google Scholar

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⁵¹ Verba, , Nie, and Kim, , Participation and Political Equality, p. 307.Google Scholar

⁵² Shabad, , Participatory Democracy, Chap. 9.Google Scholar

⁵³ Županov, Josip, ‘Employees' Participation and Social Power in Industry’, International Conference on Participation and Self-Management, 1 (1972), p. 40.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Bučar, France, ‘The Participation of the State and Political Organizations in the Decisions of the Working Organization’, International Conference on Participation and Self-Management, 1 (1972), p. 42.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Jovanov, , ‘Le rapport entre la grève’Google Scholar; Shabad, , Participatory Democracy, Chap. 9.Google Scholar

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⁵⁷ The stress on the existence of a harmony of interests among workers may be pragmatic as well as ideological. In a modernizing society in which social status is relatively fluid, expectations are rising and public policy is frequently erratic, competition for scarce resources can be very intense. Thus, the strong emphasis on creating and maintaining consensus by the Yugoslav leadership may derive, to a certain degree, from its fear of the real possibilities of increasing conflict. See Karen Rosenbaum-Cale, ‘Living with the Revolution: Official Ideology and the Popular Culture in Yugoslavia – The Ideal and the Real in Workers’ Self-Management' (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association in New York, 1978).

⁵⁸ Horvat, , An Essay on Yugoslav Society, p. 165.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Arzenšek, , ‘Legitimnost Managementa’, Table 19, p. 96.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Arzenšek, , ‘Legitimnost Managementa’, Table 11, p. 88.Google Scholar

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⁶⁷ These include Josip Županov, Slavko Milosavleski, Zoran Vidaković and Nebojsa Popov.

⁶⁸ Županov, , ‘Employees’ Participation and Social Power in Industry', p. 40.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Tornquist, , ‘Strikes in Yugoslavia’, pp. 58–9Google Scholar; Županov, , ‘Employees, Participation and Social Power in Industry’, p. 40.Google Scholar

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⁷² See Hunnius, Gerry, Garson, G. David and Case, John, Workers' Control (New York: Vintage Books, 1973)Google Scholar; Benello, C. George and Roussopoulos, Dimitrios, The Case for Participatory Democracy (New York: Viking Press, 1971)Google Scholar; Pateman, Carole, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).CrossRefGoogle Scholar