Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T01:04:42.496Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Economic Crises and Trade Policy Competition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 June 2016

Cameron Ballard-Rosa ,
Allison Carnegie  and
Nikhar Gaikwad
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

How do crises affect trade policy? This article reconciles starkly diverging accounts in the literature by showing that economic adversity generates endogenous incentives not only for protection, but also for liberalization. It first formally develops the mechanisms by which two features of shocks – intensity and duration – influence the resources and political strategies of distressed firms. The central insight is that policy adjustments to resuscitate afflicted industries typically generate ‘knock-on’ effects on the profitability and political maneuverings of other firms in the economy. The study incorporates these countervailing pressures in its analysis of trade policy competition. In the wake of crises, protection initially increases when affected firms lobby for assistance, but then decreases as industries run low on resources to expend on lobbying and as firms in other industries mobilize to counter-lobby. The theoretical predictions are tested using sub-national and cross-national data, and real-world illustrations are presented to highlight the mechanisms driving the results.

Type
Articles
Information
British Journal of Political Science , Volume 48 , Issue 3 , July 2018 , pp. 713 - 748
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Department of Political Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (email: [email protected]); Department of Political Science, Columbia University (email: [email protected]); Department of Political Science, Columbia University (email: [email protected]). Helpful comments from Peter Aronow, Alex Debs, Thad Dunning, Robert Gulotty, Lucy Martin, Thania Sanchez, Kenneth Scheve, and the participants of the 2012 International Political Economy Conference (IPES) conference and seminars at University of California, Berkeley, Duke University and Yale University are greatly appreciated. Authors are listed in alphabetical order and contributed equally. Data replication sets are available at http://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataverse/BJPolS and online appendices are available at http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1017/S0007123416000132.

References

Abreu, Marcelo de Paiva. 2004. Trade Liberalization and the Political Economy of Protection in Brazil Since 1987. Working Paper SITI (Documento de Trabajo IECI n. 8b), BID-INTAL, Buenos Aires, Argentina.Google Scholar
Abreu, Marcelo de Paiva, and Werneck, Rogério Ladeira Furquim. 2005. The Brazilian Economy from Cardoso to Lula: An Interim View. Technical Report, Department of Economics, PUC-Rio, Brazil.Google Scholar
Alston, Lee J., and Mueller, Bernardo. 2006. Pork for Policy: Executive and Legislative Exchange in Brazil. Journal of Law, Economics and Organization 22 (1):87–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alt, James E., and Gilligan, Michael J.. 1996. The Political Economy of International Trade. Comparative Political Studies 29 (6):689–717.Google Scholar
Alvarez, Jose. 2005. Sweetening the US Legislature: The Remarkable Success of the Sugar Lobby. The Political Quarterly 76:92–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angrist, Joshua D., and Pischke, Jörn-Steffen. 2008. Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ansolabehere, Stephen, De Figueiredo, John M., and Snyder, James M. Jr. 2003. Why is There so Little Money in U.S. Politics? Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 (1):105–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armijo, Leslie Elliott, and Faucher, Philippe. 2002. ‘We Have a Consensus’: Explaining Political Support for Market Reforms in Latin America. Latin American Politics and Society 44 (2):1–40.Google Scholar
Aronow, Peter M., and Samii, Cyrus. 2015. Does Regression Produce Representative Estimates of Causal Effects? American Journal of Political Science 60 (1):250–267.Google Scholar
Bagwell, Kyle, and Staiger, Robert W.. 1997. An Economic Theory of GATT. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.Google Scholar
Balassa, Bela A. 1965. Economic Development and Integration. Centro de Estudios Monetarios Latinoamericanos, Ciudad de México, D.F., Mexico.Google Scholar
Becker, Gary S. 1983. A Theory of Competition Among Pressure Groups for Political Influence. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 98 (3):371–400.Google Scholar
Bergstein, Fred C., and Williamson, John. 1983. In Exchange Rates and Trade Policy. Trade Policy in the 1980s, edited by William R. Cline, 99–120. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.Google Scholar
Binder, Leonard. 1971. Crises and Sequences in Political Development. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Blonigen, Bruce A., and Bown, Chad P.. 2003. Antidumping and Retaliation Threats. Journal of International Economics 60 (2):249–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boas, Taylor C., Hidalgo, F. Daniel, and Richardson, Neal P.. 2014. The Spoils of Victory: Campaign Donations and Government Contracts in Brazil. Journal of Politics 76 (2):415–429.Google Scholar
Bown, Chad P. 2009. The Global Resort to Antidumping, Safeguards, and Other Trade Remedies Amidst the Economic Crisis. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Bown, Chad P., and Crowley, Meredith A.. 2012. Import Protection, Business Cycles, and Exchange Rates: Evidence from the Great Recession. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Bown, Chad P. 2011. The Great Recession and Import Protection: The Role of Temporary Trade Barriers. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Brainard, Lael, and Verdier, Thierry. 1997. The Political Economy of Declining Industries: Senescent Industry Collapse Revisited. Journal of International Economics 42:221–237.Google Scholar
Broda, Christian, and Weinstein, David E.. 2006. Globalization and the Gains from Variety. Quarterly Journal of Economics 121 (7):541–595.Google Scholar
Brooks, Sarah M., and Kurtz, Marcus J.. 2007. Capital, Trade, and the Political Economies of Reform. American Journal of Political Science 51 (4):703–720.Google Scholar
Broz, J. Lawrence, and Frieden, Jeffry A.. 2001. The Political Economy of International Monetary Relations. Annual Review of Political Science 4 (1):317–343.Google Scholar
Cadot, Olivier, De Melo, Jaime, and Olarreaga, Marcelo. 2001. Can Duty-Drawbacks Have Protectionist Bias?: Evidence from Mercosur, Vol. 2523. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Cain, Peter J., and Hopkins, Antony G.. 1980. The Political Economy of British Expansion Overseas. The Economic History Review 33 (4):463–490.Google Scholar
Campero, Guillermo. 1991. Entrepreneurs Under the Military Regime. In The Struggle for Democracy in Chile, 1982–1990, edited by Paul W. Drake and Ivan Jaksic, 128–160. Lincoln: University of Nebraska.Google Scholar
Carnegie, Allison. 2014. States Held Hostage: Political Hold-Up Problems and the Effects of International Institutions. American Political Science Review 108 (1):54–70.Google Scholar
Carnegie, Allison. 2015. Power Plays: How International Institutions Reshape Coercive Diplomacy. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassing, James H., and Hillman, Arye L.. 1986. Shifting Comparative Advantage and Senescent Industry Collapse. The American Economic Review 76 (3):516–523.Google Scholar
Chapman, S. D. 1979. Financial Restraints on the Growth of Firms in the Cotton Industry, 1790–1850. The Economic History Review 32 (1):50–69.Google Scholar
Chaudhuri, Kirti N. 1971. The Economic Development of India Under the East India Company 1814-58; a Selection of Contemporary Writings. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chaudhuri, Kirti N.. 1978. The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 1660–1760 . Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Claessens, Stijn, Feijen, Erik, and Laeven, Luc. 2008. Political Connections and Preferential Access to Finance: The Role of Campaign Contributions. Journal of Financial Economics 88 (3):554–580.Google Scholar
Cookson, J. E. 1985. British Society and the French Wars, 1793-1815. Australian Journal of Politics and History 31:192–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copelovitch, Mark, and Pevehouse, Jon. 2013. Ties that Bind? Preferential Trade Agreements and Exchange Rate Policy Choice. International Studies Quarterly 57 (2):385–399.Google Scholar
Corrales, Javier. 1997. Do Economic Crises Contribute to Economic Reform? Argentina and Venezuela in the 1990s. Political Science Quarterly 112 (4):617–644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Christina, and Pelc, Krzysztof J.. 2015. Cooperation in Hard Times: Self-Restraint of Trade Protection. Journal of Conflict Resolution. Forthcoming.Google Scholar
Davis, Christina L. 2003. Food Fights Over Free Trade: How International Institutions Promote Agricultural Trade Liberalization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Drazen, Allan, and Grilli, Vittorio. 1990. The Benefits of Crises for Economic Reforms. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drazen, Allan, and Easterly, William. 2001. Do Crises Induce Reform? Simple Empirical Tests of Conventional Wisdom. Economics and Politics 13 (2):129–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dür, Andreas. 2007a. EU Trade Policy as Protection for Exporters: The Agreements with Mexico and Chile. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 45 (4):833–855.Google Scholar
Dür, Andreas. 2007b. Foreign Discrimination, Protection for Exporters, and US Trade Liberalization. International Studies Quarterly 51 (2):457–480.Google Scholar
Edwards, Sebastian, and Lederman, Daniel. 1998. The Political Economy of Unilateral Trade Liberalization: The Case of Chile. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Union. 1998. Commission Communication Concerning Autonomous Tariff Suspensions and Quotas. Technical Report, Official Journal of the European Communities (98/C 128/02) 41:2–11.Google Scholar
Farmer, Roger E. A. 2012. The Stock Market Crash of 2008 Caused the Great Recession: Theory and Evidence. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control 36 (5):693–707.Google Scholar
Felbermayr, Gabriel, Prat, Julien, and Schmerer, Hans-Jörg. 2011. Trade and Unemployment: What Do the Data Say? European Economic Review 55 (6):741–758.Google Scholar
Findlay, Ronald, and Wellisz, Stanislaw. 1982. Endogenous Tariffs, the Political Economy of Trade Restrictions, and Welfare. In Import Competition and Response, edited by Jagdish N. Bhagwati, 223–244. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Freund, Caroline, and Ozden, Caglar. 2008. Trade Policy and Loss Aversion. The American Economic Review 98 (4):1675–1691.Google Scholar
Frieden, Jeffry. 1988. Classes, Sectors, and Foreign Debt in Latin America. Comparative Politics 21 (1):1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frieden, Jeffry, Lake, David, Nicholson, Michael, and Ranganath, Aditya. 2011. Crisis Politics: Uncertainty, Relative Prices, and Political Change. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Political Economy Society, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Frye, Timothy, and Mansfield, Edward D.. 2003. Fragmenting Protection: The Political Economy of Trade Policy in the Post-Communist World. British Journal of Political Science 33 (4):635–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaikwad, Nikhar. 2013. Presidential Prospects, Political Support, and Stock Market Performance. Quarterly Journal of Political Science 8 (4):451–464.Google Scholar
Garrett, Geoffrey. 1995. Capital Mobility, Trade, and the Domestic Politics of Economic Policy. International Organization 49:657–687.Google Scholar
Gawande, Kishore, Krishna, Pravin, and Olarreaga, Marcelo. 2012. Lobbying Competition Over Trade Policy. International Economic Review 53 (1):115–132.Google Scholar
Gawande, Kishore, Hoekman, Bernard, and Cui, Yue. 2011. Determinants of Trade Policy Responses to the 2008 Financial Crisis. Washington, DC: World Bank.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gourevitch, Peter Alexis. 1986. Politics in Hard Times: Comparative Responses to International Economic Crises. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Grossman, Gene M., and Helpman, Elhanan. 1994. Protection for Sale. The American Economic Review 84 (4):833–850.Google Scholar
Hachette, Dominique. 1991. Trade Reform: Lessons from Eight Countries. San Francisco, CA: International Center for Economic Growth.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephen, and Kaufman, Robert R.. 1992. The Politics of Economic Adjustment: International Constraints, Distributive Conflicts and the State. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephan, and Kaufman, Robert R.. 1995. The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Charles Joseph. 1919. The Trade Relations Between England and India (1600-1896). Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co.Google Scholar
Irwin, Douglas A. 2011. Trade Policy Disaster: Lessons from the 1930s. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joos, Klemens. 2011. Lobbying in the New Europe. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley–VCH.Google Scholar
Khandelwal, Amit, and Topalova, Petia. 2011. Trade Liberalization and Firm Productivity: The Case of India. The Review of Economics and Statistics 93 (3):995–1009.Google Scholar
Kim, In Song. 2013. Political Cleavages Within Industry: Firm Level Lobbying for Trade Liberalization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.Google Scholar
Kindleberger, Charles P. 1975. The Rise of Free Trade in Western Europe, 1820–1875. The Journal of Economic History 35 (1):20–55.Google Scholar
Knetter, Michael M., and Prusa, Thomas J.. 2003. Macroeconomic Factors and Antidumping Filings: Evidence from Four Countries. Journal of International Economics 61 (1):1–17.Google Scholar
Krishna, Pravin, Poole, Jennifer, and Senses, Mine Zeynep. 2011. Trade Liberalization, Firm Heterogeneity, and Wages: New Evidence from Matched Employer-Employee Data. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Kucik, Jeffrey, and Reinhardt, Eric. 2008. Does Flexibility Promote Cooperation? An Application to the Global Trade Regime. International Organization 62 (3):477–505.Google Scholar
Kume, Honorio, Piani, Guida, and Souza, Carlos Frederico Braz de. 2000. A Politica Brasileira de Importacao no Periodo 1987–98: Descricao e Avaliacao. Mimeograph, Instituto de Pesquisa Economica Aplicada (IPEA), Rio de Janeiro.Google Scholar
Kurtz, Marcus J. 1999. Chile’s NeoLiberal Revolution: Incremental Decisions and Structural Transformation, 1973–89. Journal of Latin American Studies 31:399–427.Google Scholar
Lederman, Daniel. 2005. The Political Economy of Protection: Theory and the Chilean Experience. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Magee, Stephen P., Brock, William A., and Young, Leslie. 1989. Black Hole Tariffs and Endogenous Policy Theory: Political Economy in General Equilibrium. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mahon, James E. 1996. Mobile Capital and Latin American Development. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Markwald, Ricardo. 2006. The Political Economy of Foreign Trade Policy: The Brazilian Case. In Domestic Determinants of National Trade Strategies: A Comparative Analysis of Mercosur Countries, Mexico and Chile, edited by Roberto Bouzas. Paris: Chaire Mercosur de Sciences Po.Google Scholar
Marshall, Monty G., Gurr, Ted R., and Jaggers, Keith. 2002. Polity IV Dataset. Arlington: Polity IV Project.Google Scholar
McKeown, Timothy J. 1983. Hegemonic Stability Theory and 19th Century Tariff Levels in Europe. International Organization 37 (1):73–91.Google Scholar
McKeown, Timothy J.. 1991. A Liberal Trade Order? The Long-Run Pattern of Imports to the Advanced Capitalist States. International Studies Quarterly 35 (2):151–171.Google Scholar
Mesquita Moreira, Mauricio. 2009. Brazil’s Trade Policy: Old and New Issues. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.Google Scholar
Michalopoulos, Constantine. 1999. Trade Policy and Market Access Issues for Developing Countries: Implications for the Millennium Round, Policy Research Working Paper 2214. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Mitra, Devashish. 1999. Endogenous Lobby Formation and Endogenous Protection: A Long-Run Model of Trade Policy Determination. American Economic Review 89 (5):1116–1134.Google Scholar
Moss, David J. 1976. Birmingham and the Campaigns Against the Orders in Council and the East India Company Charter, 1812–13. Canadian Journal of History 11 (2):173–188.Google Scholar
Muendler, Marc-Andreas. 2003a. Industry-Related Price Indices for Brazil, 1986–2002 . San Diego: University of California.Google Scholar
Muendler, Marc-Andreas. 2003b. Series of Market Penetration by Foreign Products, Brazil 1986–1998 . San Diego: University of California.Google Scholar
Muendler, Marc-Andreas. 2003c. Tariff Series for Brazil, 1986–1999 . San Diego: University of California.Google Scholar
Muendler, Marc-Andreas. 2007. Balassa (1965) Comparative Advantage by Sector of Industry, Brazil 1986–2001. San Diego: University of California.Google Scholar
Mukherjee, B., and Singer, D. A.. 2010. International Institutions and Domestic Compensation: The IMF and the Politics of Capital Account Liberalization. American Journal of Political Science 54 (1):45–60.Google Scholar
Munoz Goma, Oscar. 1989. Crisis and Industrial Reorganization in Chile. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 31 (1/2):169–192.Google Scholar
Oliveira, Glauco Avelino Sampaio. 2009. The Political Economy of Brazilian Trade Policy: Domestic Determinants, World and Regional Strategies. PhD Thesis, Los Angeles: University of Southern California.Google Scholar
Olson, Mancur. 1982. The Rise and Decline of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation, and Social Rigidities. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Osgood, Iain. 2012. Differentiated Products, Divided Industries: A Theory of Firm Preferences Over Trade Liberalization. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.Google Scholar
Pastor, Manuel, and Wise, Carol. 1994. The Origins and Sustainability of Mexico’s Free Trade Policy. International Organization 48 (3):459–489.Google Scholar
Pelc, Krzysztof J. 2011. How States Ration Flexibility: Tariffs, Remedies, and Exchange Rates as Policy Substitutes. World Politics 63 (4):618–646.Google Scholar
Pepinsky, Thomas B. 2015. Trade Competition and American Decolonization. World Politics 67 (03):387–422.Google Scholar
Pepinsky, Thomas B.. 2013. Financial Crises and the Politics of Adjustment and Reform. In Research Handbook on International Monetary Relations, edited by Thomas Oatley and William K. Winecoff. Cheltenham: Edward Alger Publishing.Google Scholar
Pepinsky, Thomas. 2014. The Institutional Turn in Comparative Authoritarianism. British Journal of Political Science 44 (3):631–653.Google Scholar
Pettis, Michael. 2013. Great Rebalancing: Trade, Conflict, and the Perilous Road Ahead for the World Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ramos, Roberto Luıs Olinto, and Zonenschain, Claudia Nessi. 2000. The Performance of the Brazilian Imports and Exports Based on the System of National Accounts: 1980–1998. XIII International Conference on Input Output Techniques, Macerata, Italy, August.Google Scholar
Reinhart, Carmen M., and Rogoff, Kenneth S.. 2011. From Financial Crash to Debt Crisis. American Economic Review 101 (5):1676–1706.Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Pose, Andrffe, and Arbix, Glauco. 2001. Strategies of Waste: Bidding Wars in the Brazilian Automobile Sector. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 25 (1):134–154.Google Scholar
Rogowski, Ronald. 1989. Commerce and Coalitions: How Trade Affects Domestic Political Alignments. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Rosendorff, B. Peter. 2005. Stability and Rigidity: Politics and Design of the WTO’s Dispute Settlement Procedure. American Political Science Review 99 (3):389–400.Google Scholar
Samuels, David J. 2001. Money, Elections, and Democracy in Brazil. Latin American Politics and Society 43 (2):27–48.Google Scholar
Samuels, David J.. 2002. Pork Barreling is Not Credit Claiming or Advertising: Campaign Finance and the Sources of the Personal Vote in Brazil. Journal of Politics 64 (3):845–863.Google Scholar
Schamis, Hector. 1991. Distributional Coalitions and the Politics of Economic Reform in Latin America. World Politics 51 (2):236–268.Google Scholar
Schonhardt-Bailey, Cheryl. 1996. Free Trade: The Repeal of the Corn Laws. In Free Trade: The Repeal of the Corn Laws, edited by Cheryl Schonhardt-Bailey, 87–97. Bristol: Thoemmes Press.Google Scholar
Schonhardt-Bailey, Cheryl. 2006. From the Corn Laws to Free Trade: Interests, Ideas, and Institutions in Historical Perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Semmel, Bernard. 2004. The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism: Classical Political Economy the Empire of Free Trade and Imperialism, 1750–1850. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Simmons, Beth A. 1997. Who Adjusts?: Domestic Sources of Foreign Economic Policy During the Interwar Years. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Michael. 2010. A Theory of the Origins of Trade Liberalization in Developing Autocracies. Working Paper. Columbia University.Google Scholar
Stewart, Brandon. 2014. Latent Factor Regressions for the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.Google Scholar
Takacs, Wendy E. 1981. Pressures for Protectionism: An Empirical Analysis. Economic Inquiry 19 (4):687–693.Google Scholar
Tornell, Aaron. 1995. Are Economic Crises Necessary for Trade Liberalization and Fiscal Reform? The Mexican Experience. In Reform, Recovery, and Growth: Latin America and the Middle East, edited by Rudiger Dornbusch and Sebastian Edwards, 53–76. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Tovar, Patricia. 2009. The Effects of Loss Aversion on Trade Policy: Theory and Evidence. Journal of International Economics 78 (1):154–167.Google Scholar
Truman, David B. 1951. The Governmental Process: Political Interests and Public Opinion. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Van Long, Ngo, and Vousden, Neil. 1991. Protectionist Responses and Declining Industries. Journal of International Economics 30:87–103.Google Scholar
Veiga, Pedro da Motta. 2009. Brazil as an Economic Superpower? Understanding Brazil’s Changing Role in the Global Economy. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Vreeland, James Raymond. 2006. The International Monetary Fund (IMF): Politics of Conditional Lending. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Webster, Anthony. 1990. The Political Economy of Trade Liberalization: The East India Company Charter Act of 1813. Economic History Review 43 (3):404–419.Google Scholar
Weyland, Kurt. 2002. The Politics of Market Reform in Fragile Democracies: Argentina, Brazil, Peru, and Venezuela. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Woodward, Llewellyn. 1938. The Age of Reform, 1815–1870. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Wooldridge, Jeffrey M. 2010. Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2011. World Development Indicators. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Ballard-Rosa supplementary material

Online Appendix

Download Ballard-Rosa supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 151.5 KB
Supplementary material: Link

Ballard-Rosa et al. Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/SVWMB5
Link