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⁴ Stolle, Dietland, Soroka, Stuart N. and Johnston, Richard, ‘When Does Diversity Erode Trust? Neighborhood Diversity, Interpersonal Trust and the Mediating Effect of Social Interactions’, Political Studies, 56 (2008), 57–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵ Putnam, ‘E Pluribus Unum’. It is important to note that, in Putnam’s account, the corrosive effects of ethnic diversity are argued to be evident only in the short to medium term; in the long run, the hunkering-down mechanism stops and inter-ethnic distrust dissipates. However, only anecdotal evidence is presented in support of this benign denouement, and therefore its status must be considered at present as little more than speculative.

⁶ For our purposes here, we include only studies that have directly investigated the association between area-level ethnic diversity and trust. Thus, we exclude studies that have approached the same substantive question but without using independently collected area-level measures of diversity (e.g. Nannestad, Peter, ‘What Have We Learned About Generalized Trust, If Anything?’ Annual Review of Political Science, 11 (2008), 413–436CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bahry, Donna et al. , ‘Ethnicity and Trust: Evidence from Russia’, American Political Science Review, 99 (2006), 521–532CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ Putnam, ‘E Pluribus Unum’.

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¹⁴ Stolle, Soroka and Johnston, ‘When Does Diversity Erode Trust?’

¹⁵ Stolle, Soroka and Johnston, ‘When Does Diversity Erode Trust?’

¹⁶ Schuman, H. and Presser, S., Questions and Answers in Attitude Surveys: Experiments on Question Form, Wording and Context (New York: Academic Press, 1981)Google Scholar. Self-reported diversity measures are susceptible to the alternative explanation that those who are less trusting of ethnic out-groups over-estimate the level of ethnic heterogeneity in their neighbourhood, a possibility that can be discounted when using census-based measures of diversity merged with the survey micro-data.

¹⁷ Ross, Catherine, Mirowsky, John and Pribesh, Shana, ‘Powerlessness and the Amplification of Threat: Neighborhood Disadvantage, Disorder, and Mistrust’, American Sociological Review, 66 (2001), 568–591CrossRefGoogle Scholar, p. 569.

¹⁸ Marschall, Melissa and Stolle, Dietland, ‘Race and the City: Neighborhood Context and the Development of Generalized Trust’, Political Behavior, 26 (2004), 125–154CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²² Putnam, ‘E Pluribus Unum’; Pennant, Rachel, ‘Diversity, Trust and Community Participation in England’ (London: Home Office, 2005)Google Scholar; Stolle, Soroka and Johnston, ‘When Does Diversity Erode Trust?’

²³ Putnam, ‘E Pluribus Unum’; Alesina and Ferrara, ‘Ethnic Diversity and Economic Performance’.

²⁴ Anderson and Paskeviciute, ‘How Ethnic and Linguistic Heterogeneity Influence the Prospects for Civil Society’; Leigh, ‘Trust, Inequality and Ethnic Heterogeneity’.

²⁵ Costa and Kahn, ‘Civic Engagement and Community Heterogeneity’.

²⁶ Soroka, Helliwell and Johnston, ‘Measuring and Modelling Interpersonal Trust’; Stolle, Soroka and Johnston, ‘When Does Diversity Erode Trust?’

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³² Putnam (2000) makes the same distinction but labels the different types of trust as ‘thick’ and ‘thin’ respectively. Bowling Alone: ‘The collapse and revival of American Community’ (New York: Simon and Schuster).

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³⁹ Putnam’s account differentiates ‘inter-’ from ‘intra-’ ethnic trust but how this relates to the ‘thick/thin’, ‘generalized/particularized’ distinction is not clear.

⁴⁰ Costa and Kahn, ‘Civic Engagement and Community Heterogeneity: An Economist’s Perspective’; Anderson and Paskeviciute, ‘How Ethnic and Linguistic Heterogeneity Influence the Prospects for Civil Society’; Marschall and Stolle, ‘Race and the City’.

⁴¹ Soroka, Helliwell and Johnston, ‘Measuring and Modelling Interpersonal Trust’.

⁴² Putnam, ‘E Pluribus Unum’.

⁴³ Leigh, ‘Trust, Inequality and Ethnic Heterogeneity’.

⁴⁴ Uslaner, The Moral Foundations of Trust. As might be anticipated from the fact that neighbours will generally comprise a mix of known and unknown others, the TiN item has moderate loadings on both a ‘trust in strangers’ and a ‘trust in friends and family’ component, though the highest loading is on the latter dimension.

⁴⁵ Sturgis, Patrick and Smith, Patten, ‘Assessing the Validity of Generalized Trust Questions: What Kind of Trust Are We Measuring?’ International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 22 (2010), 74–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁶ See also, Uslaner, The Moral Foundations of Trust.

⁴⁷ Marschall and Stolle, ‘Race and the City’.

⁴⁸ Leigh, ‘Trust, Inequality and Ethnic Heterogeneity’; Soroka, Helliwell and Johnston, ‘Measuring and Modelling Interpersonal Trust’; Costa and Kahn, ‘Civic Engagement and Community Heterogeneity’.

⁴⁹ Hooghe, Marc, Reeskens, Tim, Stolle, Dietland and Trappers, Ann, ‘Ethnic Diversity, Trust and Ethnocentrism and Europe: A Multilevel Analysis of 21 European Countries’ (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Philadelphia, 2006)Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Anderson and Paskeviciute, ‘How Ethnic and Linguistic Heterogeneity Influence the Prospects for Civil Society’.

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⁵³ In fact, this is itself likely to be an over-estimate. Putnam later reports that when the non-independence between sample units is accounted for in a multi-level model, the coefficient is ‘slightly lower’, although he does not say by how much (Putnam, ‘E Pluribus Unum’, p. 158). See also Pennant, ‘Diversity, Trust and Community Participation in England’; Leigh, ‘Trust, Inequality and Ethnic Heterogeneity’.

⁵⁴ Soroka, Helliwell, and Johnston, ‘Measuring and Modelling Interpersonal Trust’.

⁵⁵ The TPS is funded by the Department for Culture, Media, and Sport (see http://www.culture.gov.uk/4828.aspx).

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⁵⁸ Where there is more than one household at an address, a single household is selected at random.

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⁶⁸ Pearson correlation = 0.981 (p < 0.001).

⁶⁹ cf. Putnam, ‘E Pluribus Unum’.

⁷⁰ For all MSOAs, the correlation between the 1991 and 2001 Herfindahl indices is 0.971.

⁷¹ The Institute of Public Policy Research estimates that the total number of post-2004 immigrants from Eastern Europe was 550,000 (see Pollard, Naomi, Latorre, Maria and Dhananjayan, Sriskandarajah, ‘Floodgates or Turnstiles: Post EU-Enlargement Migration Flows to (and from) the UK’ (London: IPPR, 2008)Google Scholar.

⁷² Alesina and Ferrera, ‘Who Trusts Others?’; Delhey and Newton, ‘Who Trusts?’; Delhey and Newton, ‘Predicting Cross-National Levels of Social Trust’; Li, Yaojun, Pickles, Andrew and Savage, Mike, ‘Social Capital and Social Trust in Britain’, European Sociological Review, 21 (2005), 109–123CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷³ Twenty per cent of respondents provided no answer to the earnings question, and therefore this was imputed using a hot-deck procedure in STATA 10. See Mander, Adrian and Clayton, David, ‘Hotdeck Imputation’, Stata Technical Bulletin, 9 (2000), 32–34Google Scholar.

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⁷⁷ See Rabe-Hesketh, Sophia and Skrondal, Anders, Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling Using Stata, 2nd edn (College Station, Tex.: Stata Press, 2008)Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Models are estimated in STATA 10 using the xtmixed and xtmelogit commands. See Rabe-Hesketh and Skrondal, Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling Using Stata, 2nd edn.

⁷⁹ Putnam identifies television as the ‘mysterious anti-civic X-ray’ responsible for the precipitate decline in trust and other indicators of social capital in the United States since the 1950s (Putnam, ‘The Strange Disappearance of Civic America’).

⁸⁰ Stolle, Soroka and Johnston, ‘When Does Diversity Erode Trust?’

⁸¹ In multi-level models, level-2 fixed effects can only explain variability at that level while level-1 fixed effects can explain variability at both levels if the mean of explanatory variable is not equal across level-2 units (Hox, Multilevel Analysis. Techniques and Applications).

⁸² Putnam, ‘E Pluribus Unum’; Goodhart, ‘Too Diverse?’

⁸³ Uslaner, The Moral Foundations of Trust; Hardin, ‘Conceptions and Explanations of Trust’; Putnam, Robert D., Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁴ Uslaner, The Moral Foundations of Trust; Newton, ‘Social and Political Trust’.

⁸⁵ Marschall and Stolle, ‘Race and the City’; Leigh, ‘Trust, Inequality and Ethnic Heterogeneity’; Soroka, Helliwell and Johnston, ‘Measuring and Modelling Interpersonal Trust’; Costa and Kahn, ‘Civic Engagement and Community Heterogeneity’; Hooghe et al., ‘Ethnic Diversity, Trust and Ethnocentrism and Europe’; Anderson and Paskeviciute, ‘How Ethnic and Linguistic Heterogeneity Influence the Prospects for Civil Society’.

⁸⁶ Stolle, Soroka and Johnston, ‘When Does Diversity Erode Trust?’; Uslaner, The Moral Foundations of Trust.

⁸⁷ Putnam, Bowling Alone; Paxton, ‘Not All Association Memberships Increase Trust’.

⁸⁸ Sturgis and Smith, ‘Assessing the Validity of Generalized Trust Questions: What Kind of Trust Are We Measuring?’; Uslaner, The Moral Foundations of Trust.

⁸⁹ Stolle, Soroka and Johnston, ‘When Does Diversity Erode Trust?’

⁹⁰ Putnam, ‘E Pluribus Unum’ (emphasis added).

⁹¹ Putnam, , ‘E Pluribus Unum’, p. 165Google Scholar.