Anecdotal evidence suggests the use of bolus tube feeding is increasing in the long-term home enteral tube feed (HETF) patients. A cross-sectional survey to assess the prevalence of bolus tube feeding and to characterise these patients was undertaken. Dietitians from ten centres across the UK collected data on all adult HETF patients on the dietetic caseload receiving bolus tube feeding (n 604, 60 % male, age 58 years). Demographic data, reasons for tube and bolus feeding, tube and equipment types, feeding method and patients’ complete tube feeding regimens were recorded. Over a third of patients receiving HETF used bolus feeding (37 %). Patients were long-term tube fed (4·1 years tube feeding, 3·5 years bolus tube feeding), living at home (71 %) and sedentary (70 %). The majority were head and neck cancer patients (22 %) who were significantly more active (79 %) and lived at home (97 %), while those with cerebral palsy (12 %) were typically younger (age 31 years) but sedentary (94 %). Most patients used bolus feeding as their sole feeding method (46 %), because it was quick and easy to use, as a top-up to oral diet or to mimic mealtimes. Importantly, oral nutritional supplements (ONS) were used for bolus feeding in 85 % of patients, with 51 % of these being compact-style ONS (2·4 kcal (10·0 kJ)/ml, 125 ml). This survey shows that bolus tube feeding is common among UK HETF patients, is used by a wide variety of patient groups and can be adapted to meet the needs of a variety of patients, clinical conditions, nutritional requirements and lifestyles.

Animal sterols, plant sterols and bile acids in stool samples have been suggested as biomarkers of dietary intake. It is still unknown whether they also reflect long-term habitual dietary intake and can be used in aetiological research. In a subgroup of the Cooperative Health Research in the Augsburg Region (KORA FF4) study, habitual dietary intake was estimated based on repeated 24-h food list and a FFQ. Stool samples were collected according to a standard operating procedure and those meeting the quality criteria were extracted and analysed by means of a metabolomics technique. The present study is based on data from 513 men and 495 women with a mean age of 60 and 58 years, respectively, for which faecal animal and plant sterols and bile acids concentrations and dietary intake data were available. In adjusted regression models, the associations between food intake and log-normalised metabolite concentrations were analysed. Bonferroni correction was used to account for multiple testing. In this population-based sample, associations between habitual dietary intake and faecal concentrations of animal sterols were identified, while the impact of usual diet on bile acids was limited. A habitual diet high in ‘fruits’ and ‘nuts and seeds’ is associated with lower animal faecal sterols concentrations, whereas a diet high in ‘meat and meat products’ is positively related to faecal concentrations of animal sterols. A positive association between glycocholate and fruit consumption was found. Further studies are necessary for evaluation of faecal animal sterols as biomarkers of diet. The findings need to be confirmed in other populations with diverse dietary habits.

Despite growing evidence suggesting a potential health benefit of high fibre intake for the prevention of chronic inflammatory diseases, studies regarding the role of total dietary fibre intake, types and sources of fibre on asthma are lacking. The present study aimed to investigate the cross-sectional association of dietary fibre intakes and source of fibre with the asthma symptom score and asthma control. A total of 35 380 participants from the NutriNet-Santé cohort were included. Asthma was defined by the asthma symptom score and asthma control by the asthma control test. Fibre intake (g/d) was categorised according to sex-specific quintiles. Multi-adjusted negative binomial regressions were used to evaluate the association between dietary fibre with the asthma symptom score and logistic regressions with asthma control. Participants were aged on average 54 years. After adjustment for confounders, higher intake of total, soluble, insoluble fibres from cereals, fruit and seeds were significantly negatively associated with the asthma symptom score both among women and men; OR for the highest quintile of total dietary fibre compared with the lowest quintile were 0·73 (95 % CI 0·67, 0·79) in women and 0·63 (95 % CI 0·55, 0·73) in men. We also found inverse significant associations between total, soluble and insoluble fibre with uncontrolled asthma; OR for participants in the highest quintile of total dietary fibre was 0·72 (95 % CI 0·55, 0·95) in women and 0·45 (95 % CI 0·26, 0·79) in men. Our results suggested that higher intake of dietary fibre, mostly insoluble fibre and fibre from cereals, was associated with fewer asthma symptoms and greater asthma control.

Low-income women are the group with the highest levels of obesity worldwide. In low-income settings, the use of predictive equations, which yield a measure of the individuals’ BMR, is a feasible approach to estimate the individuals’ total energy expenditure (TEE), using the factorial method (calculated-TEE = BMR × physical activity level), an important step of the obesity nutritional care. The present study aimed to identify the predictive equation that, in conjunction with metabolic equivalents of tasks (MET) data from accelerometers, yields the calculated-TEE with better agreement compared with the TEE measured by doubly labelled water (TEE-DLW). Forty-five women aged 19–45 years, with excess weight and mothers of undernourished children, were included. They received DLW to determine TEE (14 d); at the same time, they used triaxial accelerometers (7 d) to estimate their MET. The Bland–Altman method, paired-sample t tests, concordance correlation coefficient and root-mean-square error were used to assess the agreement. Maximum allowed differences were defined as 24 %, based on the within-variance coefficient of the energy intake of the sample. Eleven equations were studied. The calculated-TEE obtained by five equations showed non-significant bias: Dietary Reference Intake (Institute of Medicine (2005) Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids), FAO/WHO/UNU ((2001) Food and Nutrition Technical Report Series), Harris & Benedict ((1919) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA4, 370–373), Henry & Rees ((1991) Eur J Clin Nutr45, 177–185) and Schofield ((1985) Hum Nutr Clin Nutr39, 5–41). The mean percentage differences were –1·5, –0·8, 2·2, –2·2 and 2·0 %, respectively. Considering all parameters, FAO/WHO/UNU ((2001) Food and Nutrition Technical Report Series) equation performed slightly better than the others; nevertheless, no equation in conjunction with the estimated-MET showed a calculated-TEE with its CI for the Bland–Altman limits of agreement inside the pre-defined acceptable range.

There exists an ever-increasing number of systematic reviews, with or without meta-analysis, in the field of nutrition. Concomitant with this increase is the increased use of such to guide future research as well as both practice and policy-based decisions. Given this increased production and consumption, a need exists to educate both producers and consumers of systematic reviews, with or without meta-analysis, on how to conduct and evaluate high-quality reviews of this nature in nutrition. The purpose of this paper is to try and address this gap. In the present manuscript, the different types of systematic reviews, with or without meta-analyses, are described as well as the description of the major elements, including methodology and interpretation, with a focus on nutrition. It is hoped that this non-technical information will be helpful to producers, reviewers and consumers of systematic reviews, with or without meta-analysis, in the field of nutrition.

This study aimed to investigate the association between diet and the risk of breast, endometrial and ovarian cancer in the UK Women’s Cohort Study. A total of 35 372 women aged 35–69 years were enrolled between 1995 and 1998 and completed a validated 217-item FFQ. The individual foods were collapsed into sixty-four main food groups and compared using Cox proportional models, adjusting for potential confounders. Hazard ratio (HR) estimates are presented per portion increase in food items. After approximately 18 years of follow-up, there were 1822, 294 and 285 cases of breast, endometrial and ovarian cancer, respectively. A high consumption of processed meat and total meat was associated with an increased risk of breast and endometrial cancer. High intake of tomatoes (HR 0·87, 99 % CI 0·75, 1·00) and dried fruits (HR 0·60, 99 % CI 0·37, 0·97) was associated with a reduced risk of breast and endometrial cancer, respectively. Mushroom intake was associated with a higher risk of ovarian cancer (HR 1·57, 99 % CI 1·09, 2·26). Subgroup analysis by pre- or postmenopausal cancer further demonstrated an association between processed meat intake and both postmenopausal breast cancer and endometrial cancer. Intake of dried fruits was associated with a reduced risk of postmenopausal endometrial cancer (HR 0·55, 99 % CI 0·31, 0·98). Our findings suggest that while some foods may trigger the risk of these cancers, some foods may also be protective; supporting the call for further randomised controlled trials of dietary interventions to reduce the risk of cancer among pre- and postmenopausal women.

Street food is part of the culture in central Asia. Although nourishing food can be found, unhealthier options are becoming increasingly popular – a marker of nutrition transition. The nutritional composition of street food in urban settings is, however, unknown. The objective of the present study was, thus, to characterise the street food availability in Dushanbe, Tajikistan. A total of 800 street food vending sites in public markets were selected through random and systematic procedures. Trained interviewers collected data on vending sites’ characteristics, location and food available. Samples of the most commonly available food were collected (ninety-nine homemade and thirty-five industrial). Macronutrients were quantified through proximate analysis. Fruit, drinks and food other than fruits were available, respectively, in 4·5, 40·5 and 87·4 %, of the vending sites. Among the latter, 63·6 % sold only homemade (e.g. bread, traditional dishes, snacks, pastries, sandwiches and cakes), 19·3 % only industrial (e.g. bread, snacks, pastries and cookies) and 17·1 % both types of food. Homemade food presented higher energy per serving compared with industrial food (median 452 v. 276 kcal/serving (1891 v. 1155 kJ/serving); P < 0·001). A high content of SFA (soup: 10·9 g/serving) and trans-fatty acids (cakes: 1·8 g/serving) was also found in homemade food. However, industrial wafers showed the highest content of these fatty acids (12·9 g/serving and 2·5 g/serving, respectively). Soft drinks were available in 68·5 % of the vending sites selling beverages. Homemade and industrial street food, with heterogeneous nutritional value, were widely available in Dushanbe. Hence, policies promoting the availability of healthy food should be encouraged.

Many components in diet have regulated oxidative stress, inflammatory reaction and even balance oestrogen levels. Because these factors are closely associated with depressive symptoms in postmenopausal women, it is considered that dietary factors are able to prevent and control depressive symptoms. On the other hand, a dietary pattern that considers the correlations and synergies between foods and nutrients is expected to have a greater impact on disease risk. The aim of the present study is to evaluate whether dietary patterns are associated with depressive symptoms in Chinese postmenopausal women. A cross-sectional study of 2051 postmenopausal women (mean age: 58·8 (sd 7·4) years) was conducted in Tianjin, China. Dietary consumption was assessed by a valid self-administered FFQ. Principal component analysis was used to derive three major dietary patterns: ‘healthy’, ‘sweets’ and ‘traditional Tianjin’ from eighty-eight food items. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale, and cut-off point of 48 indicating serious depressive symptoms. The association between quartile of dietary patterns and depressive symptoms was assessed using multiple logistic regression analysis. The multivariable-adjusted OR of having depressive symptoms for increasing quartile of dietary patterns were as follows: healthy, 1·00, 0·79 (95 % CI 0·49, 1·28), 0·62 (95 % CI 0·37, 1·04) and 0·57 (95 % CI 0·33, 0·97); sweets, 1·00, 0·75 (95 % CI 0·42, 1·3), 1·08 (95 % CI 0·64, 1·81) and 1·66 (95 % CI 1·03, 2·71); and traditional Tianjin, 1·00, 1·02 (95 % CI 0·58, 1·79), 0·96 (95 % CI 0·54, 1·71) and 2·53 (95 % CI 1·58, 4·16), respectively. The present study demonstrated that a healthy dietary pattern was inversely associated with depressive symptoms. On the contrary, greater adherence to sweets and traditional Tianjin dietary patterns was associated with a higher prevalence of depressive symptoms.

Variants in the human genes of fatty acid (FA) desaturase 1 (FADS1), 2 (FADS2) and 3 (FADS3) are associated with PUFA blood levels. We explored if maternal prenatal supplementation and children’s genetic variation in seventeen SNP of the FADS1, FADS2 and FADS3 gene cluster influence twenty-one of the most relevant cheek cells’ derived FA in glycerophospholipids (GPL-FA). The study was conducted in 147 Spanish and German mother–children pairs participating in the Nutraceuticals for a Healthier Life (NUHEAL) study at 8, 9 and 9·5 years. Linear and mixed model longitudinal regression analyses were performed. Maternal fish-oil (FO) or FO+5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF) supplementation during pregnancy was associated with a significant decrease of arachidonic acid (AA) concentrations in cheek cell GPL in the offspring, from 8 to 9·5 years; furthermore, maternal FO+5-MTHF supplementation was associated with higher n-6 docosapentaenoic acid concentrations in their children at age 8 years. FADS1 rs174556 polymorphism and different FADS2 genotypes were associated with higher concentrations of linoleic and α-linolenic acids in children; moreover, some FADS2 genotypes determined lower AA concentrations in children’s cheek cells. It is suggested an interaction between type of prenatal supplementation and the offspring genetic background driving GPL-FA levels at school age. Prenatal FO supplementation, and/or with 5-MTHF, seems to stimulate n-3 and n-6 FA desaturation in the offspring, increasing long-chain PUFA concentrations at school age, but depending on children’s FADS1 and FADS2 genotypes. These findings suggest potential early nutrition programming of FA metabolic pathways, but interacting with children’s FADS polymorphisms.

It is crucial to identify people at risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) to implement preventive interventions in order to address these pandemics. A simple score exclusively based on dietary components, the Dietary-Based Diabetes-Risk Score (DDS) showed a strong inverse association with incident T2DM. The objective was to assess the association between DDS and the risk of GDM in a cohort of Spanish university graduates. The ‘Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra’ project is a prospective and dynamic cohort which included data of 3455 women who notified pregnancies between 1999 and 2012. The diagnosis of GDM is self-reported and further confirmed by physicians. A validated 136-item semi-quantitative FFQ was used to assess pre-gestational dietary habits. The development of the DDS was aimed to quantify the association between the adherence to this a priori dietary score and T2DM incidence. The score exclusively included dietary components (nine food groups with reported inverse associations with T2DM incidence and three food groups which reported direct associations with T2DM). Three categories of adherence to the DDS were assessed: low (11–24), intermediate (25–39) and high (40–60). The upper category showed an independent inverse association with the risk of incident GDM compared with the lowest category (multivariate-adjusted OR 0·48; 95 % CI 0·24, 0·99; P for linear trend: 0·01). Several sensitivity analyses supported the robustness of these results. These results reinforce the importance of pre-gestational dietary habits for reducing GDM and provide a brief tool to practically assess the relevant dietary habits in clinical practice.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of vitamin B12 (B12) deficiency in kidney transplant recipients (KTR) and its possible association with B12 dietary intake, body adiposity and immunosuppressive drugs. In this cross-sectional study, we included 225 KTR, aged 47·50 (sd 12·11) years, and 125 (56 %) were men. Serum levels of B12 were determined by chemiluminescent microparticle intrinsic factor assay and the cut-off of 200 pg/ml was used to stratify KTR into B12-sufficient or B12-deficient group. B12 dietary intake was evaluated by three 24 h dietary recalls and was considered adequate when ≥2·4 μg/d. Body adiposity was estimated after taking anthropometric measures and using the dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) method. B12 deficiency was seen in 14 % of the individuals. B12-deficient group, compared with the B12-sufficient group, exhibited lower intake of B12 (median 2·42 (interquartile range (IQR) 1·41–3·23) v. 3·16 (IQR 1·94–4·55) μg/d, P = 0·04) and higher values of waist circumference (median 96·0 (IQR 88·0–102·5) v. 90·0 (IQR 82·0–100·0) cm, P = 0·04). When the analysis included only women, B12 deficiency was associated with higher total and central body adiposity measurements obtained with anthropometry (BMI, body adiposity index, waist and neck circumferences) and DXA (total and trunk body fat). Among individuals with adequate intake of B12, the deficiency of this vitamin was more frequently seen in those using mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) (17 %) v. azathioprine (2 %), P = 0·01. In conclusion, the prevalence of B12 deficiency in KTR was estimated as 14 % and was associated with reduced intake of B12 as well as higher adiposity, especially in women, and with the use of MMF.

Fe deficiency (ID) defined as plasma ferritin <12 µg/l is associated with delayed cognitive development in early childhood and increased incidence of infections; however, the longitudinal association between early-life factors and ID in 18-month-old children in Denmark is unknown. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of ID and to describe risk factors associated with ID in healthy 18-month-old Danish children. Blood samples, anthropometric measurements and self-reported questionnaire data had been obtained in the birth cohort, Odense Child Cohort. The questionnaires were modified from those used in the Danish National Birth Cohort. Plasma ferritin and C-reactive protein in venous, non-fasting samples were analysed in the final sample size of 370 children after exclusion of seventy-nine children due to chronic disease, acute infection, C-reactive protein >10 mg/l, twin birth or prematurity. Associations with ID were analysed by logistic regression, adjusting for sex, maternal education, duration of partial breast-feeding and current intake of milk, fish and meat. Overall, fifty-six children had ID (15·1 %). Factors associated with increased risk were exclusive breast-feeding beyond 4 months (OR 5·97; 95 % CI 1·63, 21·86) and no intake of oral Fe supplements from 6 to 12 months (OR 3·99, 95 % CI 1·33, 11·97. Duration of partial breast-feeding and current diet was not associated with ID. In conclusion, the ID prevalence was 15·1 %, and both exclusive breast-feeding beyond 4 months and no intake of oral Fe supplements from 6 to 12 months were associated with increased risk of ID in 18-month-old children.

Nutrition plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology and management of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) and periodontal disease (PD). As PD can have profound effects on an individual’s functional ability to eat and can affect nutrient intake, we aimed to evaluate the role of PD severity on dietary intake (DI) and quality in PAD patients and compare it with current dietary recommendations for CVD. PD stages of 421 consecutive PAD patients were determined according to a standardised basic periodontal examination (Periodontal Screening and Recording Index) (‘healthy’, ‘gingivitis’, ‘moderate periodontitis’ and ‘severe periodontitis’). Dietary intake (24-h recall), dietary quality (food frequency index (FFI)) and anthropometrical data were assessed. Nutritional intake was stratified according to the severity of PD. No significant differences in DI of macronutrients, nutrients relevant for CVD and FFI were seen between the PD stages. Only median alcohol intake was significantly different between gingivitis and severe periodontitis (P = 0·001), and positively correlated with PD severity (P = 0·001; r 0·159). PD severity and the patient’s number of teeth showed no correlation with investigated nutritional parameters and FFI. Few subjects met the recommended daily intakes for fibre (5 %), SFA (10 %), Na (40 %) and sugar (26 %). Macronutrient intake differed from reference values. In our sample of patients with PAD and concomitant PD, we found no differences in DI of macronutrients, nutrients relevant for CVD and diet quality depending on PD severity. The patients’ nutrition was, however, poor, deviating seriously from dietary guidelines and recommendations.

Intestinal barrier inflammatory damage is commonly accompanied by hypoxia. The hypothesis that dietary Acanthopanax senticosus polysaccharides (ASPS) might modulate the hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) signalling pathway and contribute to attenuate intestinal injury was tested in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged piglets. Thirty-six weaned pigs were randomly allocated to one of the following three groups: (1) basal diet + saline challenge; (2) basal diet + LPS challenge; (3) basal diet with 800 mg/kg ASPS + LPS challenge. LPS was injected at 15, 18 and 21 d, and intestinal sections were sampled following blood collection at 21 d . The results showed ASPS reversed (P < 0·05) LPS-induced decrease in average daily feed intake and rise (P < 0·05) of diarrhoea incidence and index. Biochemical index reflecting gut barrier damage and function involving ileal pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) and enzyme activity (diamine oxidase and lactase), as well as circulatory d-xylose, was normalised (P < 0·05) in LPS-challenged piglets receiving ASPS. ASPS also ameliorated intestinal morphological deterioration of LPS-challenged piglets, proved by elevated ileal villus height (P < 0·05) and improved appearance of epithelial villus and tight junction ultrastructure. Moreover, ASPS prevented LPS-induced amplification of inflammatory mediators, achieved by depressed ileal mRNA abundance of TNF-α, inducible NO synthase and IL-1β concentration. Importantly, ileal protein expressions of HIF-1α, cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) and NFκB p65 were also suppressed with ASPS administration (P < 0·05). Collectively, these results suggest the improvement of mucosal inflammatory damage and diarrhoea in immune stress piglets is possibly associated with a novel finding where HIF-1α/COX-2 pathway down-regulation is involved in NFκB p65-inducible releasing of inflammatory cytokines by dietary ASPS.

Individuals may perceive personalised dietary advice as more relevant and motivational than national guidelines. Personal preference and food cost are factors that can affect consumer decisions. The objective of this study was to present a method for modelling and analysing the trade-off between deviation from preference and food cost for optimised personalised dietary recommendations. Quadratic programming was applied to minimise deviation from fish preference and cost simultaneously with different weights on the cost for 3016 Danish adults (whose dietary intake and body weight were recorded in a national dietary survey). Model constraints included recommendations for EPA, DHA and vitamin D and tolerable levels for methyl mercury, dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. When only minimising deviation from preference, 50 % of the study population should be recommended to increase fish intake, 48 % should be suggested to maintain current consumption and 2 % should be suggested to decrease fish consumption. When only minimising cost, the vast majority (99 %) should be recommended to only consume herring, which is the least-expensive fish species. By minimising deviation from preference and cost simultaneously with different weights on the cost, personalised optimal trade-off curves between deviation from fish intake preference and fish cost could be generated for each individual in our study population, except for twenty-two individuals (0·7 %) whose contaminant background exposure was too high. In the future, the method of this paper could be applied in the personal communication of healthy and safe food recommendations that fit the preferences of individual consumers.

The present study investigated the association between protein intake and lean mass according to obesity status over a 12-year period. Data on 4412 participants aged 40–69 years were obtained from the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study. The usual dietary protein intake of these participants was assessed at baseline using a semi-quantitative FFQ. Body composition was measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis at baseline and after a 12-year follow-up. Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine the associations between lean mass after a 12-year follow-up and protein intake at baseline. After adjusting for covariates and lean mass at baseline, comparisons between the highest and lowest tertiles revealed that dietary protein intake was positively associated with lean mass in both men (β = 0·79, P = 0·001) and women (β = 0·28, P = 0·082) after the 12-year period; however, those differences were attenuated after additional adjustment for fat mass at baseline and were stronger in the normal-weight group (men, β = 0·85, P = 0·002; women, β = 0·97, P < 0·001) but were not detected in the obese group. In the obese group, age (men, β = 4·08, P < 0·001; women, β = 2·61, P < 0·001) and regular physical activity (men, β = 0·88, P = 0·054; women, β = 0·76, P < 0·001) were significantly associated with lean mass after 12 years of follow-up. The results of the present study showed that protein intake may contribute to the prevention of ageing-related lean mass loss; however, the impact of this intake may vary depending on obesity status. Therefore, the maintenance of a healthy body weight during ageing through enhanced protein intake is likely to confer health benefits.

Evidence from randomised controlled trials supports beneficial effects of total dairy products on body weight, fat and lean mass, but evidence on associations of dairy types with distributions of body fat and lean mass is limited. We aimed to investigate associations of total and different types of dairy products with markers of adiposity, and body fat and lean mass distribution. We evaluated cross-sectional data from 12 065 adults aged 30–65 years recruited to the Fenland Study between 2005 and 2015 in Cambridgeshire, UK. Diet was assessed with an FFQ. We estimated regression coefficients (or percentage differences) and their 95 % CI using multiple linear regression models. The medians of milk, yogurt and cheese consumption were 293 (interquartile range (IQR) 146–439), 35·3 (IQR 8·8–71·8) and 14·6 (IQR 4·8–26·9) g/d, respectively. Low-fat dairy consumption was inversely associated with visceral:subcutaneous fat ratio estimated with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (–2·58 % (95 % CI –3·91, –1·23 %) per serving/d). Habitual consumption per serving/d (200 g) of milk was associated with 0·33 (95 % CI 0·19, 0·46) kg higher lean mass. Other associations were not significant after false discovery correction. Our findings suggest that the influence of milk consumption on lean mass and of low-fat dairy consumption on fat mass distribution may be potential pathways for the link between dairy consumption and metabolic risk. Our cross-sectional findings warrant further research in prospective and experimental studies in diverse populations.

The effect of maternal folate intake on small-for-gestational-age (SGA) births remains inconclusive. The present study aimed to investigate the associations of maternal folate intake from diet and supplements with the risk of SGA births using data from a cross-sectional study in Shaanxi Province of Northwest China. A total of 7307 women who were within 12 months (median 3; 10th–90th percentile 0–7) after delivery were included. Two-level models were adopted to examine the associations of folate (dietary folate, supplemental folic acid and total folate) intake with the risk of SGA births and birth weight Z score, controlling for a minimum set of confounders that were identified in a directed acyclic graph. Results showed that a higher supplemental folic acid intake during the first trimester was negatively associated with the risk of SGA births (≤60 d v. non-use: OR 0·80; 95 % CI 0·66, 0·96; >60 d v. non-use: OR 0·78; 95 % CI 0·65, 0·94; Ptrend = 0·010; per 10-d increase: OR 0·97; 95 % CI 0·95, 0·99). A higher total folate intake during pregnancy was associated with a reduced risk of SGA births (highest tertile v. lowest tertile: OR 0·77; 95 % CI 0·64, 0·94; Ptrend = 0·010; per one-unit increase in the log-transformed value: OR 0·81; 95 % CI 0·69, 0·95). A similar pattern was observed for the birth weight Z score. Our study suggested that folic acid supplementation during the first trimester and a higher total folate intake during pregnancy were associated with a reduced risk of SGA births.

The association of chocolate consumption with risk of gestational diabetes has not been examined. We aimed to investigate the prospective association between chocolate consumption and risk of gestational diabetes in a large birth cohort in Japan. A total of 97 454 pregnant women with a median gestational age of 12 weeks were recruited from January 2011 to March 2014. Data on demographic information, disease history, socio-economic status, lifestyle and dietary habits were obtained at the study enrolment. Dietary intake during the past 12 months before study enrolment was assessed through a semi-quantitative FFQ. The logistic regression was used to obtain the OR of gestational diabetes in relation to chocolate consumption. Among 84 948 women eligible for the analysis, 1904 cases of gestational diabetes (2·2 %) were identified during the period of pregnancy. After controlling for potential confounding factors including age, smoking status, drinking status, education level, occupation, pre-pregnant BMI, depression, previous history of macrosomia babies, parity, physical activity and dietary factors, women in the highest quartile of chocolate consumption, compared with those in the lowest quartile, had a significantly lower risk of developing gestational diabetes (OR 0·78, 95 % CI 0·67, 0·90; P for trend = 0·002). Stratified analyses suggested that the association was not significantly modified by pre-pregnancy BMI, age, parity, smoking status or drinking status. The present prospective cohort study provided evidence that chocolate consumption was associated with a significant lower risk of gestational diabetes in Japanese women.