Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T00:42:44.228Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Phyto-oestrogens: where are we now?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2007

S. A. Bingham ,
C. Atkinson ,
J. Liggins ,
L. Bluck  and
A. Coward
S. A. Bingham*
Affiliation:
MRC Dunn Clinical Nutrition Centre, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2DH, UK
C. Atkinson
Affiliation:
MRC Dunn Clinical Nutrition Centre, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2DH, UK
J. Liggins
Affiliation:
MRC Dunn Clinical Nutrition Centre, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2DH, UK
L. Bluck
Affiliation:
MRC Dunn Clinical Nutrition Centre, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2DH, UK
A. Coward
Affiliation:
MRC Dunn Clinical Nutrition Centre, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2DH, UK
*
*Corresponding author: Professor Sheila Bingham, fax +44(0)1223 413763, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Phyto-oestrogens have emerged from their esoteric role in animal husbandry following the hypothesis that the human Western diet is relatively deficient in these substances compared with societies where large amounts of plant foods and legumes are eaten. Evidence is beginning to accrue that they may begin to offer protection against a wide range of human conditions, including breast, bowel, prostate and other cancers, cardiovascular disease, brain function, alcohol abuse, osteoporosis and menopausal symptoms. Of the two main classes of these weak oestrogens, the isoflavones are under intensive investigation due to their high levels in soyabean. Like the ‘anti-oestrogen’ Tamoxifen, these seem to have oestrogenic effects in human subjects in the cardiovascular system and bone. Although previously only available from food, isoflavones are now being marketed in health-food supplements or drinks, and tablets may soon be available over the counter as ‘natural’ hormone-replacement therapy. In cancer, anti-oestrogenic effects are thought to be important, although genistein especially has been shown to induce wide-ranging anti-cancer effects in cell lines independent of any hormone-related influence. There are few indications of harmful effects at present, although possible proliferative effects have been reported. In infants, the effects of high levels in soya milk formulas are uncertain. The second group, lignans, have been less investigated despite their known anti-oestrogenic effects and more widespread occurrence in foods. Investigation of the possible benefits of phyto-oestrogens is hampered by lack of analytical standards and, hence, inadequate methods for the measurement of low levels in most foods. This problem may prove to be a major dilemma for regulatory authorities, clinicians and others wishing to advise the general public on whether these compounds really do have the health benefits attributed to them.

Keywords

Phyto-oestrogensIsoflavonesLignansHuman disease risk
Type
Review Article
Information
British Journal of Nutrition , Volume 79 , Issue 5 , May 1998 , pp. 393 - 406
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 1998

References

Adlercreutz, H (1984) Does fiber rich food containing animal lignan precursors protect against both colon and breast cancer? Gastroenterology 86, 761–766.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adlercreutz, H (1990) Western diet and western diseases: some hormonal and biochemical mechanisms and associations. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 50, Suppl. 201, 3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adlercreutz, H (1995) Phytoestrogens: Epidemiology and a possible role in cancer protection. Environmental Health Perspectives 103, Suppl. 7, 103–112.Google Scholar
Adlercreutz, H, Fotsis, T, Bannwart, C, Wahala, K, Makela, T, Brunow, G & Hase, T (1986) Determination of urinary lignans and phytoestrogen metabolites in urine of women on various habitual diets. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 25, 791–797.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adlercreutz, H, Fotsis, T, Heikkinen, R, Dwyer, JT, Goldin, BR, Gorbach, SL, Lawson, AM & Setchell, KDR (1982) Excretion of the lignans and of equol in omnivorous and vegetarian postmenopausal women and in women with breast cancer. Lancet ii, 1295–1299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adlercreutz, H, Fotsis, T, Lampe, J, Wahalo, K, Makela, T, Brunow, G & Hase, T (1993 a) Quantitative determination of lignans and isoflavonoids in plasma of omnivorous and vegetarian women by isotope dilution GC/MS. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 53, Suppl. 215, 5–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adlercreutz, H, Honjo, H, Higashi, A, Fotsis, T, Hamalainen, E, Hasegawa, T & Okada, H (1991) Urinary excretion of lignans and isoflavonoid phytoestrogens in Japanese men and women consuming a traditional Japanese diet. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54, 1093–1100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adlercreutz, H, Markkanen, H & Watanbe, S (1993 b) Plasma concentrations of phytoestrogens in Japanese men. Lancet 342, 1209–1210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, JW, Johnstone, BM & Cook-Newall, ME (1995) Meta analysis of soy protein on serum lipids. New England Journal of Medicine 333, 276–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anthony, MS, Clarkson, TB, Hughes, CL, Morgan, TM & Burke, GL (1996) Soybean isoflavones improve cardiovascular risk factors without affecting the reproductive system of peripubertal rhesus monkeys. Journal of Nutrition 126, 43–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arjmandi, BH, Alekel, L, Hollis, BW, Amin, D, Sapuntzakis, MA, Guo, P & Kukreja, SS (1996) Dietary soybean prevents bone loss in ovariectomised rat model of osteoporosis. Journal of Nutrition 126, 161–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, B & Doll, R (1975) Environmental factors and cancer incidence in different countries. International Journal of Cancer 15, 617–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arts, CJM, Govers, C, van den Berg, H & Thijssen, JH (1992) Effects of wheat bran on onset of puberty in rats. Acta Endocrinologica 126, 451–459.Google Scholar
Baird, DD, Umbach, DM, Lansdell, L, Hughes, CL, Setchell, KDR, Weinberg, CR, Haney, AF, Wilcox, AJ & McLachlan, JA (1995) Dietary intervention study to assess oestrogenicity of dietary soy among postmenopausal women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 80, 1685–1690.Google ScholarPubMed
Bakhit, RM, Klein, BP, Essex-Sorlie, D, Ham, JO, Erdman, JW & Potter, SM (1994) Intake of 25 g soybean protein with or without soybean fiber alters plasma lipids in men with elevated cholesterol concentrations. Journal of Nutrition 124, 213–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, D (1995) Effect of genistein on in vitro and in vivo models of cancer. Journal of Nutrition 125, 777S–783S.Google ScholarPubMed
Barnes, D, Urban, W, Grizzel, L, Coward, L, Kirk, M, Weiss, H & Irwin, W (1996) A double blind clinical trial of the effects of soy protein on risk parameters for prostate cancer. Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Preventing and Treating Chronic Disease, p. 37,St Louis, MO: Protein Technologies International.Google Scholar
Bernstein, L & Ross, RK (1993) Endogenous hormones and breast cancer risk. Epidemiologic Reviews 15, 48–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berrino, F, Muti, P, Bolleli, G, Krogh, V, Sciajno, R, Pisani, P, Panico, S & Secreto, G (1996) Serum sex hormone levels after the menopause and subsequent breast cancer. Journal of The National Cancer Institute 88, 291–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bingham, S, Pignatelli, B, Pollock, J, Ellul, A, Mallaveille, C, Gross, G, Runswick, S, Cummings, JH & O'Neill, IK (1996) Does increased formation of endogenous N nitroso compounds in the human colon explain the association between red meat and colon cancer? Carcinogenesis 17, 515–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bingham, SA (1996) Epidemiology and mechanisms relating diet to risk of colorectal cancer. Nutrition Research Reviews 9, 197–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bingham, SA, Setchell, K & Cassidy, A (1994) Soya and safety. New Scientist 13 August, 46–47.Google Scholar
Bluck, LJC & Bingham, SA (1997) Isoflavone content of breast milk and formulas. Clinical Chemistry 43, 851–852.Google ScholarPubMed
Boyar, AP, Rose, DP, Loughridge, JR, Engle, A, Pagli, A, Laakso, K, Kinne, D & Wynder, EL (1988) Response to a diet low in total fat in women with postmenopausal breast cancer. Nutrition and Cancer 11, 93–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, A (1992) Plant oestrogens and their relation to hormonal status in women. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Cassidy, A, Bingham, S & Setchell, K (1995) Biological effects of isoflavones in young women: importance of the chemical composition of soyabean products. British Journal of Nutrition 74, 587–601.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, A, Bingham, SA & Setchell, KDR (1994) Biological effects of a diet of soy protein rich in isoflavones on the menstrual cycle of premenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, 333–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassidy, A, Bingham, SA, Setchell, K & Watson, D (1991) Urinary plant oestrogen excretion in post-menopausal women. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 50, 105A.Google Scholar
Cassidy, A, Faughnan, M, Hughes, R, Fraser, C, Cathcart, A, Taylor, N & Bingham, S (1997) Hormonal effects of phytoestrogens in postmenopausal women and middle aged men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (In the Press).Google Scholar
Coleman, MP, Esteve, J, Damieki, P, Arslan, A & Renard, H (1993) Trends in Cancer Incidence and Mortality. International Agency for Research on Cancer Scientific Publication no. 121. Lyon, France: IARC Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Coward, L, Barnes, NC, Setchell, KDR & Barnes, S (1993) Genistein, daidzein, and their β-glycoside conjugates. Journal of Agriculture and Food Science 41, 1961–1967.Google Scholar
Cox, RI & Davies, LH (1988) Modification of pasture oestrogens in the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia 13, 61–67.Google Scholar
Crighton, I, Dowsett, M, Hunter, M, Shaw, C & Smith, I (1992) The effect of a low fat diet on hormone levels in pre and post menopausal women. European Journal of Cancer 28A, 2024–2027.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
den-Tonkelaar, I & de, Waard F (1996) Regularity and length of menstrual cycles in women aged 41–46 in relation to breast cancer risk. Breast Cancer Research Treatment 38, 253–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Department of Health (1992) The Nutrition of Elderly People. Report on Health and Social Subjects no. 43. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Department of Health (1994) Nutritional Aspects of Cardiovascular Disease. Report on Health and Social Subjects no. 46. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group (1988) Effects of adjuvant tamoxifen and of cytotoxic therapy on mortality in early breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 319,1681–1692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eden, J, Knight, D & Mackey, R (1996) Hormonal effects of plant oestrogens. Proceedings of 2nd International Syposium on the Role of Soy in Preventing and Treating Chronic Disease, p. 41. St Louis, MO: Protein Technologies International.Google Scholar
Erdman, JW, Stillman, RJ, Lee, KF & Potter, SM (1996) Short term effects of soybean isoflavones on bone in postmenopausal women. Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Preventing and Treating Chronic Disease, p. 21. St Louis, MO: Protein Technologies International.Google Scholar
Erkkola, R (1996) Female menopause, hormone replacement therapy, and cognitive processes. Maturitas 23, S27–S30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essex, C (1996) Phytoestrogens and soy based formulas. British Medical Journal 313, 507–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, BAJ, Griffiths, K & Morton, MS (1995) Inhibition of 5a reductase and 17β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in genital skin fibroblasts by dietary lignans and isoflavonoids. Journal of Endocrinology 147, 295–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felson, DT, Zhang, Y, Hannan, MT, Keil, DP, Wilson, PW & Anderson,, JJ (1993) The effect of postmenopausal estrogen therapy on bone density in elderly women. New England Journal of Medicine 329, 1141–1146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fentiman, IS & Fogelman, I (1993) Breast cancer and osteoporosis-a bridge at last. European Journal of Cancer 29A, 385–486.Google ScholarPubMed
Fotsis, T, Pepper, M, Adlercreutz, H, Fleischmann, G, Hase, T, Montesano, R & Schweigerer, L (1993) Genistein, a dietary derived inhibitor of in vitro angiogenesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 90, 2690–2694.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldin, BR, Woods, MN, Speigelman, DL, Longcope, C, Morrill-LaBrode, A, Dwyer, JT, Gualtieri, LJ, Hertzmark, E & Gorbach, SL (1994) The effect of dietary fat and fibre on serum estrogens. Cancer 74, 1125–1131.3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gooderham, MJ, Adlercreutz, H, Ojala, S, Wahala, K & Holub, BJ (1996) Soy protein and heart disease risk factors. Journal of Nutrition 126, 2000–2006.Google Scholar
Goodman, MT, Wilkens, LR, Hankin, JN & Kolonel, LN (1996) The association of dietary phytoestrogens with the risk for endomentrial cancer. Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Preventing and Treating Chronic Disease, p. 36. St Louis, MO: Protein Technologies International.Google Scholar
Henderson, B, Ross, RK, Judd, HL, Krailo, MD & Pike, MC (1985) Do regular ovulatory cycles increase breast cancer risk? Cancer 56, 1206–1208.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, PB, Garbaczwski, L, Daynes, G & Gaire, KS (1986) Gonadotrophin release and meat consumption in vegetarian women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43, 37–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirayama, T (1981) A large scale cohort study on the relationship between diet and selected cancers of the digestive organs. Banbury Report, pp. 409–429 [Bruce,, R, Correa,, P, Lipkin, M, Tannenbaum, S and Wilkins, TD, editors]. Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.Google Scholar
Hodgson, JM, Croft, KD, Puddey, IB, Mori, TA & Beilin, LJ (1996) Soybean isoflavonoids and their metabolic products inhibit in vitro lipoprotein metabolism. Journal of Nutrition and Biochemistry 7, 664–669.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollman, PCH, Vries, JHM, van Leeuwen, SD, Mengelers, MJB & Katan, MB (1995) Absorption of dietary quercitin glycosides and quercitin in healthy ileostomy volunteers. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62, 1276–1282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howe, GR, Hirohata, T, Hislop, TG, Iscovitch, JM, Yuan, JM, Katsouyanni, K, Lubin, F, Marubin, E, Modan, B & Rohan, T (1990) Dietary factors and risk of breast cancer: combined analysis of 12 case control studies. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 82, 561–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, RE & Jones, E (1985) Intake of dietary fibre and age of menarche. Annals of Human Biology 12, 325–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, DJ, Speigelman, D & Adami, HO (1996) Cohort studies of fat intake and risk of breast cancer–a pooled analysis. New England Journal of Medicine 334, 356–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutchins, AM, Lampe, JW, Martini, MC, Campbell, DR & Slavin, JL (1995) Vegetables, fruits and legumes: Effect on urinary isoflavonoid phytoestrogen and lignan excretion. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 95, 769–774.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenab, M & Thompson, LU (1996) The influence of flaxseed and lignans on colon carcinogenesis and β-glucuronidase activity. Carcinogenesis 17, 1343–1348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karr, SC, Lampe, JW, Hutchins, AM & Slavin, JL (1997) Urinary isoflavonoid excretion in humans is dose dependent at low to moderate levels of soy-protein consumption. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66, 46–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, GE, Nelson, C, Waring, MA, Joannou, GE & Reeder, AY (1993) Metabolites of dietary (soya) isoflavones in human urine. Clinica Chimica Acta 223, 9–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kesteloot, H, Sasaki, S, Zhang, X & Jossens, JV (1995) Mortality trends: a comparison between Denmark, Hungary and Japan. Acta Cardiologica 50, 343–367.Google ScholarPubMed
Keung, WM (1993) Biochemical studies of a new class of alcohol-dehydrogenase inhibitors from radix puerariae. Alcoholism–Clinical and Experimental Research 17, 1254–1260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keung, WM, Klyosou, AA & Vallee, BL (1997) Daidzin inhibits mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase and suppresses ethanol intake of Syrian golden hamsters. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 94, 1675–1679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keung, WM & Vallee, BL (1993) Daidzin: a potent selective inhibitor of human mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 90, 1247–1251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Key, TJ & Pike, MC (1988) The role of oestrogens and progestagens in the epidemiology and prevention of breast cancer. European Journal of Cancer and Clinical Oncology 24, 29–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knight, DC & Eden, JA (1995) Phytoestrogens, a short review. Maturitas 22, 167–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krishnan, HB, Kuo, CI & Pueppke, SG (1995) Elaboration of flavonoid-induced proteins by the nitrogen-fixing soybean symbiont Rhizobium fredii is regulated by both nodD1 and nodD2, and is dependent on the cultivar-specificity locus, nolXWBTUV. Microbiology 141, 2245–2251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kronenberg, F (1994) ‘Hot Flashes’. Treatment of the Postmenopausal Woman, pp. 97–116 [Lobo, RA, editor]. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Lamartiniere, CA, Moore, J, Holland, M & Barnes, S (1995) Neonatal genistein chemo prevents mammary cancer. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 208, 120–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lampe, JW, Martini, MC, Kurzer, MS, Adlercreutz, H & Slavin, J (1994) Urinary lignan and isoflavonoid excretion in premeno-pausal women consuming flaxseed powder. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, 122–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, H, Gourley, L, Duffy, S, Esteve, J, Lee, J & Day, NE (1991) Dietary effects on breast cancer risk in Singapore. Lancet 337, 1197–1200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liener, I (1995) Possible adverse effects of soy bean anti-carcinogens. Journal of Nutrition 125, 744S–750S.Google Scholar
Lu, LJ, Anderson, KE, Grady, JJ & Nagamani, M (1996 a) Effects of soya consumption for one month on steroid hormones of the menstrual cycle. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention 5, 63–70.Google Scholar
Lu, LJ, Anderson, KE, Nealon, W & Nagamani, M (1996 b) Reductions in steroid and gastrointestinal hormone levels in men and premenopausal women with soya consumption for one month. Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Preventing and Treating Chronic Diseases p. 39. St Louis, MO: Protein Technologies International.Google Scholar
McMichael-Phillips, DF, Harding, C, Morton, M, Potten, CS & Bundred, NJ (1996) The effects of soy supplementation on epithelial proliferation in the normal breast. Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Preventing and Treating Chronic Disease, p. 35. St Louis, MO: Protein Technologies International.Google Scholar
Mazur, W, Fotsis, T, Wahala, K, Ojala, S, Salakka, A & Adlercreutz, H (1996) Isotopic dilution GC-MS methods for the determination of isoflavonoids, coumestrol, and lignans in foods. Analytical Biochemistry 233, 169–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathieson, RA & Kitts, WD (1980) Binding of phyto-oestrogens and oestradiol 17β by cytoplasmic receptors in the pituitary gland and hypothalamus of the ewe. Journal of Endocrinology 85, 317–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Messina, M (1995) Isoflavone intakes by Japanese were overestimated. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62, 645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Messina, MJ, Persky, V, Setchell, KDR & Barnes, S (1994) Soy intake and cancer risk: A review of the in vitro and in vivo data. Nutrition and Cancer 21, 113–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miksicek, RJ (1995) Estrogenic flavonoids: structural requirements for biological activity. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 208, 44–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molteni, A, Brizio-Molteni, L & Persky, V (1995) In vivo hormonal effects of soybean isoflavones. Journal of Nutrition 125, 751S–756S.Google Scholar
Morton, M, Wilcox, G, Wahlquist, M & Griffiths, K (1994) Determination of lignans and isoflavonoids in human female plasma following dietary supplementation. Journal of Endocrinology 142, 251–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morton, MS, Matos-Ferreira, A, Abranches-Monteiro, L, Correia, R, Blacklock, N, Chan, PSF, Cheng, C, Lloyd, S, Chiehping, W & Griffith, K (1997) Measurement and metabolism of isoflavonoids and lignans in the human male. Cancer Letters 114, 145–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murkies, AL, Lombard, C, Strauss, BJG, Wilcox, G, Burger, HG & Morton, MS (1995) Dietary flour supplementation decreases postmenopausal hot flushes: effect of soy and wheat. Maturitas 21, 189–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakafuku, M, Satoh, T & Kaziro, Y (1992) Differentiation factors, including nerve growth-factor, fibroblast growth-factor, and interleukin-6, induce an accumulation of an active ras.GTP complex in rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry 267, 19448–19454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Research Council (1996) Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet. Committee on Comparative Toxicity of Naturally Occurring Carcinogens. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Nomura, A, Henderson, BE & Lee, J (1978) Breast cancer and diet among the Japanese in Hawaii. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31, 2020–2025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paganga, G & Rice Evans, C (1997) The identification of flavonoids as glycosides in human plasma. Federation of European Biomedical Societies Letters 401, 78–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pagliacci, MC, Smacchia, M, Migliorati, G, Grignani, F, Riccardi, C & Nicoletti, I (1994) Growth inhibitory effects of genistein in MCF-7 human breast cells. European Journal of Cancer 30A, 1675–1682.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkin, DM, Muir, CS, Whelan, SL, Gao, YT, Ferlay, J & Powell, J (1992) Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, Vol 5, International Agency for Research on Cancer Scientific Publication no. 88. Lyon, France: IARC Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Peterson, G (1995) Evaluation of the biochemical targets of genistein in tumour cells. Journal of Nutrition 125, 784S–789S.Google Scholar
Petilli, M, Fiorelli, G, Benvenuti, S, Frediani, U, Gori, F & Brandi, ML (1995) Interactions between ipriflavone and the estrogenreceptor. Calcified Tissue International 56, 160–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrakis, NL, Barnes, S, King, EB, Lowenstein, J, Wiencke, J, Lee, M, Miike, R, Krik, M & Coward, L (1996) Stimulatory influence of soy protein isolate on breast secretion in pre and post menopausal women. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention 5, 785–794.Google Scholar
Phipps, WR, Martini, MC, Lampe, JW, Slavin, JL & Kurzer, MS (1993) Effects of flaxseed ingestion on the menstrual cycle. Journal of the Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 77, 1215–1219.Google ScholarPubMed
Prentice, R, Thompson, D, Clifford, C, Gorbach, S, Goldin, B & Byar, D (1990) Dietary fat reduction and plasma estradiol concentration in healthy postmenopausal women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 82, 129–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prentice, RL (1990) Tamoxifen as a potential preventive agent in healthy postmenopausal women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 82, 1310–1311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pryor, ML, Robinson, LM & Egger, MNA (1989) Adolescent diet and breast cancer in Utah. Cancer Research 49, 2161–2167.Google ScholarPubMed
Raines, EW & Ross, R (1995) Biology of atherosclerotic plaque formation. Journal of Nutrition 125, 624S–630S.Google ScholarPubMed
Reinli, K & Block, G (1996) Phytoestrogen content of foods. Nutrition and Cancer 26, 123–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ridder, CM, Thijssen, JHH, van't, Veer P, van Duren, R, Bruining, P, Zonderland, ML & Erich, WBM (1991) Dietary habits, sexual maturation and plasma hormones in pubertal girls. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54, 805–813.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, DP (1991) Dietary fibre, phytoestrogens and breast cancer. Nutrition 8, 47–51.Google Scholar
Rose, DP, Boyar, AP, Cohen, C & Strong, LE (1987) Effect of a low fat diet on hormone levels in women with cystic breast disease. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 78, 623–626.Google ScholarPubMed
Rose, DP, Goldman, M, Connolly, JM & Strong, LE (1991) A high fibre diet reduces serum estrogen levels in premenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54, 520–525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scandinavian Simuastatin Survival Study Group (1994) Randomised trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with CHD. Lancet 344, 1383–1389.Google Scholar
Setchell, KDR (1985) Naturally occurring non steroidal estrogens of dietary origin. In Estrogens in the Environment, Vol. 2, Influences on Development, pp. 69–85 [McLachlan, JA, editor]. New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Setchell, KDR & Adlercreutz, H (1988) Mammalian lignans and phytoestrogens. In The Role of the Gut Flora in Toxicity and Cancer, pp. 315–346 [Rowland, I, editor]. London: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Setchell, KDR, Borriello, SP, Hulme, P & Axelson, M (1984) Nonsteroidal estrogens of dietary origin; possible roles in hormone-dependent disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 40, 569–578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Setchell, KDR, Gosselin, SJ, Welsh, MB, Johnston, JO, Balistreri, WF, Kramer, LW, Dressner, BL & Tarr, MJ (1987) Dietary estrogens-a probable cause of infertility and liver disease in captive cheetah. Gastroenterology 93, 225–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Setchell, KDR, Lawson, AM, Borrielo, SP, Harkness, R, Gordon, H, Morgan, DML, Kirk, DN, Adlercreutz, H, Anderson, LC & Axelson, M (1981) Lignan formation in man. Lancet i, 4–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Setchell, KDR, Zimmer-Nechemias, L, Cai, J & Heubi, JE (1997) Exposure of infants to phyto-oestrogens from soy based infant formula. Lancet 350, 23–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shultz, TD, Bonorden, WR & Seaman, WR (1991) Effect of short term flaxseeed consumption on lignan and sex hormone metabolism in men. Nutrition Research 11, 1089–1100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shutt, DA (1976) The effects of plant oestrogens on animal reproduction. Endeavour 35, 110–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shutt, DA & Cox, RI (1972) Steroid and phytoestrogen binding to sheep uterine receptors in vivo. Journal of Endocrinology 52, 299–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sitori, CR, Gianazza, E, Manzoni, C & Lovatti, MR (1997) Role of isoflavones in the cholesterol reduction by soy proteins in the clinic. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65, 166–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R (1993) Bone mineral. In Human Nutrition and Dietetics, pp. 162–173 [Garrow, JS and James, WPT, editors]. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.Google Scholar
Steele, VE, Pereira, M, Sigman, C & Kelloff, G (1995) Cancer chemoprevention agent development strategies for genistein. Journal of Nutrition 125, 713S–716S.Google ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, D, Parthasarathy, S, Carew, T & Witzum, JL (1989) Beyond cholesterol: modifications of LDL that increase its atherogenicity. New England Journal of Medicine 320, 915–924.Google ScholarPubMed
Tang, BY & Adams, NR (1980) Effects of equol on oestrogen receptors and on synthesis on DNA and protein in the immature rat uterus. Journal of Endocrinology 85, 291–297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tataryn, IV, Meldrum, DR, Frumar, AM & Judd, HL (1979) LH, FSH and skin temperature during the menopausal hot flush. Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 49, 152–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, LU, Robb, P, Serraino, M & Cheung, F (1991) Mammalian lignan production from various foods. Nutrition and Cancer 16, 43–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thorogood, M, Mann, J, Appleby, P & McPherson, K (1994) Risk of death from cancer and ischaemic heart disease in meat and non-meat eaters. British Medical Journal 308, 1667–1671.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toniolo, PG, Levitz, M, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte, A, Banerjee, S, Koenig, KI, Shore, RE, Strax, P & Pasternack, BS (1995) A prospective study of endogenous estrogens and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87, 190–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treloar, AE, Boynton, RE, Behn, BG & Brown, BW (1967) Variation of the human menstrual cycle throughout life. International Journal of Fertility 12, 77–126.Google Scholar
Verdeal, K & Ryan, DS (1979) Naturally occurring estrogens in plant foodstuffs-a review. Journal of Food Protection 42, 577–583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, AP & Knowler, JT (1982) Effect of a lignan on RNA synthesis in the rat. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 66, 379–381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whelan, EA, Sandier, DP, Root, JL, Smith, KR & Weinberg, CR (1994) Menstrual cycle patterns and risk of breast cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology 140, 1081–1090.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitten, PL, Lewis, C, Russel, E & Naftolin, F (1995) Potential adverse effects of phytoestrogens. Journal of Nutrition 125, 771S–776S.Google ScholarPubMed
Wilcox, G, Wahlqvist, ML, Burger, HG & Medley, G (1990) Oestrogenic effects of plant foods in postmenopausal women. British Medical Journal 301, 905–906.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilcox, JN & Blumenthal, BF (1995) Thrombotic mechanisms in atherosclerosis. Journal of Nutrition 125, 631S–638S.Google ScholarPubMed
Williams, CM, Maunder, K & Teale, D (1989) Effect of a low fat diet on luteal phase prolactin and oestradiol concentrations and RBI phospholipids in normal premenopausal women. British Journal of Nutrition 61, 651–661.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, BM & Huff, M (1995) Effects of continuous low-dosage hormonal replacement therapy on lipoprotein metabolism in postmenopausal women. Metabolism 44, 410–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woods, MN, Gorbach, SL, Longcope, C, Goldin, BR, Dwyer, JT & Morrila, BA (1989) Low fat high fibre diet and serum estrone sulphate in premenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49, 1179–1183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woods, MN, Senie, R & Kronenberg, F (1996) Effect of a dietary soy bar on menopausal symptoms. Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Preventing and Treating Chronic Disease, p. 41. St Louis, MO: Protein Technologies International.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1994) Assessment of Fracture Risk and its Application for Screening for Postmenopausal Osteoporosis, Technical Report Series no. 834. Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
Xie, CI, Lin, RC, Antony, V (1994) Daidzin, an antioxidant isoflavonoid, decreases blood-alcohol levels and shortens sleep time induced by ethanol intoxication. Alcoholism–Clinical and Experimental Research 18, 1443–1447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xu, X, Harris, KS, Wang, H, Murphy, P & Hendrich, S (1995) Bioavailability of soybean isoflavones depends on gut microflora in women. Journal of Nutrition 125, 2307–2315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xu, X, Wang, H, Murphy, P, Cook, L & Hendrich, S (1994) Daidzein is a more bioavailable soymilk isoflavone than is genistein in adult women. Journal of Nutrition 124, 825–832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yuan, JM, Wang, QS, Ross, RK, Henderson, BE & Yu, MC (1995) Diet and breast cancer in Shanghai and Tianjin, China. British Journal of Cancer 71, 1353–1358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed