Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T03:59:29.383Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A perspective on food energy standards for nutrition labelling

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2007

Geoffrey Livesey
Geoffrey Livesey*
Affiliation:
Independent Nutrition Logic, Pealerswell House*, Wymondham, Norfolk, NR18 0QX, UK
*
Corresponding author: Dr Geoffrey Livesey, fax +44 1953 600218, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Food energy values used for nutrition labelling and other purposes are traditionally based on the metabolisable energy (ME) standard, which has recent support from Warwick & Baines (2000). By reference to current practices and published data, the present review critically examines the ME standard and support for it. Theoretical and experimental evidence on the validity of ME and alternatives are considered. ME and alternatives are applied to 1189 foods to assess outcomes. The potential impact of implementing a better standard in food labelling, documentation of energy requirements and food tables, and its impact on users including consumers, trade and professionals, are also examined. Since 1987 twenty-two expert reviews, reports and regulatory documents have fully or partly dropped the ME standard. The principal reason given is that ME only approximates energy supply by nutrients, particularly fermentable carbohydrates. ME has been replaced by net metabolisable energy (NME), which accounts for the efficiency of fuel utilisation in metabolism. Data collated from modern indirect calorimetry studies in human subjects show NME to be valid and applicable to each source of food energy, not just carbohydrates. NME is robust; two independent approaches give almost identical results (human calorimetry and calculation of free energy or net ATP yield) and these approaches are well supported by studies in animals. By contrast, the theoretical basis of ME is totally flawed. ME incompletely represents the energy balance equation, with substantial energy losses in a missing term. In using NME factors an account is made of frequent over-approximations by the ME system, up to 25 % of the NME for individual foods among 1189 foods in British tables, particularly low-energy-density traditional foods. A new simple general factor system is possible based on NME, yet the minimal experimental methodology is no more than that required for ME. By accounting for unavailable carbohydrate the new factor system appears as specific to foods as the USA's food-specific Atwater system, while it is more representative of energy supply from food components. The NME content of foods is readily calculable as the sum from fat (37 kJ/g), protein (13 kJ/g), available carbohydrate (16 kJ/g), fully-fermentable carbohydrate (8 kJ/g), alcohol (26 kJ/g) and other components. Obstacles to the implementation of NME appear to be subjective and minor. In conclusion, the ME standard is at best an approximate surrogate for NME, and inadequately approximates food energy values for the purpose of informing the consumer about the impact on energy balance of the energy supply for equal intake of individual foods. NME is superior to ME for nutrition labelling and other purposes.

Keywords

Food energyFood labellingNet metabolisable energy
Type
Review article
Information
British Journal of Nutrition , Volume 85 , Issue 3 , March 2001 , pp. 271 - 287
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 2001

References

Agricultural Research Council(1980) The Nutrient Requirements of Ruminant Livestock.Farnham Royal, Berks: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau.Google Scholar
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada(1996) Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising. Nutrient Content Claims, 25 March issue. Ottawa, Ont: Health Canada.Google Scholar
Akanji, OA, Bruce, MA & Frayn, JN (1989) Effect of acetate infusion on energy expenditure and substrate oxidation rates in non-diabetic and diabetic subjects. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43, 107–115.Google ScholarPubMed
Allison, RG & Senti, FR (1983) A Perspective on the Atwater System of Food Energy Assessment.Bethesda, MD: LifeSciences Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.Google Scholar
Altman, DG (1991) Practical Statistics for Medical Research. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Atwater, WO & Bryant, AP (1990) 12th Annual Report (1899) of the Storrs, CT Agricultural Experimental Station, 73–110.Storrs, CT: Storrs Experimental Station.Google Scholar
Australian National Codex Delegation (1998) Proposal to define the basis for derivation of energy conversion factors in the CODEX guidelines on nutrition labelling. CODEX Committee on Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses (CCNFSDU), Session 21, 21-25Sept, Berlin, Germany. Rome: FAO/WHO.Google Scholar
Australia New Zealand Food Authority (1991) Australia New Zealand Food Authority Act, 1991.Google Scholar
Australia New Zealand Food Authority (1998) Australia New Zealand Food Authority. Service Charter.Canberra, Australia: ANZFA.Google Scholar
Australia New Zealand Food Authority (1999 a) Review of the Provisions for Low-joule Foods and Carbohydrate Modified Foods. Canberra, Australia: ANZFA.Google Scholar
Australia New Zealand Food Authority (1999 b) Derivation of Energy Factors. Proposal P177. Caberra, Australia: ANZFA.Google Scholar
Australia New Zealand Food Authority (1999 c) Inquiry Report: Derivation of Energy Factors. Caberra, Australia: ANZFA.Google Scholar
Bär, A (1990) Factorial calculation model for the estimation of the physiological caloric value of polyols In Caloric Evaluation of Carbohydrates pp209–379.[N, Hosoya, editors]. Tokyo: The Japanese Association of Dietetic and Enriched Foods.Google Scholar
Bässler, KH (1989) Die energetische Nutzung von Zuckeraustauschstoffen, eine übersicht mit Schwerpunkt auf den Disaccharidalkoholen (The energy efficiency of sugar substitutes, a general survey with particular emphasis on disaccharide alcohols) Ernährungsunshau 36, 395–401.Google Scholar
Bernier, JJ & Pascal, G (1990) Valeur energetique des polyols (sucres-alcohols). The energy value of polyols (sugar alcohols). Medicine et Nutrition 26, 221–238.Google Scholar
Bingham, SA (1991) Limitations of the various methods for collecting dietary intake data Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 35, 117–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blaak, EE & Saris, WHM (1996) Post-prandial thermogenesis and substrate utilisation after ingestion of different dietary carbohydrates. Metabolism 45, 1235–1242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blaxter, KB (1967) The Energy Metabolism of Ruminants, 2nd impression. London: Hutchinson.Google Scholar
Blaxter, KB (1989) Energy Metabolism in Animals and Man. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 254–294.Google Scholar
British Nutrition Foundation(1990) Energy from complex carbohydrates BNF Task Force Report on Complex Carbohydrates in Foods.London: Chapman & Hall, pp. 56–66.Google Scholar
Brooks, SPJ (1995) Report on the Energy Value of Sugar Alcohols. Ottawa, Ont∴: Ministry of Health.Google Scholar
Brown, D, Livesey, G & Dauncey, MJ (1991) Influence of mild cold on the components of 24 hour thermogenesis in rats. Journal of Applied Physiology 441, 137–154.Google ScholarPubMed
Brown, JC & Livesey, G (1994) Energy balance and expenditure while consuming guar gum at various fat intakes and ambient temperatures. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, 956–964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buemann, B, Toubro, S & Astrup, A (1998) D-Tagatose, a stereoisomer of D-fructose, increases hydrogen production in humans without affecting 24-h energy expenditure or respiratory exchange ratio. Journal of Nutrition 128, 1481–1486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buskirk, ER, Thompson, RH, Moore, R & Whedon, GD (1960) Human energy expenditure studies in the National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases metabolic chamber. I. Interaction of cold environment and specific dynamic effect. II. Sleep. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 8, 602–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castiglia-Delavaud, C, Verdier, E, Besle, JM, Vernet, J, Boirie, Y, Beaufrere, B, De Baynast, R & Vermorel, M (1988) Net energy value of non-starch polysaccharide isolates (sugarbeet fibre and commercial inulin) and their impact on nutrient digestive utilization in healthy human subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 80, 343–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Codex (1991) Codex standard for formula foods for use in weight control diets. Codex Alimentarius Standard 181.Google Scholar
Cummings, JH, Roberfroid, MB, and members of the Paris Carbohydrate Group, Anderson, H, Barth, C, Ferro-Luzzi, A, Ghoos, Y, Hermonsen, K, James, WPT, Korver, O, Larion, D, Pascal, G & Vorgen, AGS (1997) A new look at dietary carbohydrate: chemistry, physiology and health. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 417–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dauncey, MJ (1981) Influence of mild cold on 24-h energy expenditure, resting metabolism and diet-induced thermogenesis. British Journal of Nutrition 45, 257–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dauncey, MJ & Bingham, SA (1983) Dependence of 24 h energy expenditure in man on the composition of the nutrient intake. British Journal of Nutrition 50, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Department of Health (1995) Obesity: Reversing the Increasing Problem of Obesity in England. A Report from the Nutrition and Physical Activity Task Force. London: Department of Health.Google Scholar
Dutch Nutrition Council (1987) The Energy Values of Polyols. Recommendations of the Committee on Polyols. The Hague,The Netherlands: Nutrition Council.Google Scholar
Elia, M & Livesey, G (1988) Theory and validity of indirect calorimetry during net lipid synthesis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47, 591–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellwood, KC (1995) Methods available to estimate the energy values of sugar alcohols. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62(Suppl)., 1169s–1174s.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
European Communities (1990) Directive 90/496/EEC: Nutrition labelling for foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Communities L276, 40–44.Google Scholar
European Communities (1997) Regulation 258/97: Novel foods and novel food ingredients. Official Journal of the European Communities L43, 1–7.Google Scholar
Ferrannini, E, Natali, A, Brandi, LS, Bonadonna, R, de Kreutzenberg, SV, DelPrato, S & Santoro, D (1993) Metabolic and thermic effects of lactate infusion in humans. American Journal of Physiology 265, E504-E512.Google Scholar
Flatt, JP (1978) The biochemistry of energy expenditure.In Recent Advances in Obesity Research, pp.211–228 [GABrey, Brey, editors]. London: Newman.Google Scholar
Flatt, JP (1985) Energetics of intermediary metabolism. In Substrate and Energy Metabolism in Man, pp.56–69 [JS, Garrow & D, Halliday, editors]. London: J. Libbey.Google Scholar
Food and Agriculture Organization (1998) Carbohydrates in Human Nutrition. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper no. 66. Rome: FAO.Google Scholar
Food and Drug Administration (1993) Nutrition labelling of foodstuffs. Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations (21CR). Federal Register 53, 2175.Google Scholar
Food and Drug Administration (1995) FDA Letters of Agreement, 1994–1995 (cited in Livesey et al. 2000).Google Scholar
Fukagawa, NK, Veirs, H & Langlehoh, G (1995) Acute effects of fructose and glucose ingestion with and without caffeine in young and old humans. Metabolism 44, 630–638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heijnen, MLA, Deurenberg, P, vanAmelsvoort, JMM & Beynen, AC (1995) Replacement of digestible by resistant starch lowers diet-induced thermogenesis in healthy men. British Journal of Nutrition 73, 423–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, JO, Peters, JC, Reed, GW, Schundt, DG, Sharp, T & Greene, HL (1991) Nutrient balance in humans: effect of diet composition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54, 10–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffmann, L, Klein, M & Schiemann, R (1986) Untersuchungen an ratten zür ährstoffabhängigkeit des energieerhaltungsbedarfs (Investigation in rats into feed dependence of maintenance energy requirement). Animal Nutrition 11, 981–993.Google Scholar
Hungate, RE (1966) The Rumen and its Microbes. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hurni, M, Burnand, B, Pittet, P & Jequier, E (1982) Metabolic effects of a high-carbohydrate low-fat diet in man, measured over 24 h in a respiratory chamber. British Journal of Nutrition 47, 33–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Independent Nutrition Logic (2000) http://www.inlogic.co.uk.Google Scholar
Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare (1991) Official Notice: Evaluation of the Energy Value of Indigestible Carbohydrates in Nutritive Foods. Docket no. Ei-shin 71. Tokyo: JapaneseMinistry of Health and Welfare.Google Scholar
Johnson, RE & Kark, RM (1947) Environment and food intake in men. Science 105, 378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jørgensen, H & Lærke, HN (1998) The Influence of D-Tagatose on the Digestibility and Energy Metabolism in Pigs. Foulum,Denmark: Foulum Research Centre.Google Scholar
Jørgensen, H, Larsen, T, Zhao, X-Q & Eggum, BO (1997) The energy value of short-chain fatty acids infused into the caecum of pigs. British Journal of Nutrition 77, 745–756.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karst, H, Steiniger, J, Noack, R & Steglich, D-D (1984) Diet-induced thermogenesis in man: Thermic effects of single proteins, carbohydrates and fats depending on their energy amount. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 28, 245–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleiber, M (1975) The Fire of Life: an Introduction to Animal Energetics. Huntingdon, NY: Robert E. Krieger.Google Scholar
Klesges, RC, Mealer, CZ & Klesges, LM (1994) Effects of alcohol intake on resting energy expenditure in young women social drinkers. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, 805–809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lichtenbelt, WD, van, M, Mensink, RP & Westerterp, KR (1997) The effect of fat composition of the diet on energy metabolism. Zeitschrift fur Ernährungswissenschaft 36, 303–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Life Science Research Office (1967) Present Knowledge of Factors Determining the Balance between the Energy Value of Ingested Food and the Energy Cost of Basal Plus Work Metabolism in Adults Bethesda, MD: Life Science Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.Google Scholar
Life Science Research Office (1994) The Evaluation of the Energy of Certain Sugar Alcohols Used as Food Ingredients. Bethesda,MD: Life Science Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.Google Scholar
Life Science Research Office (1999) Evaluation of the Net Energy of Maltitol. Bethesda, MD: Life Science Research Office Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.Google Scholar
Livesey, G (1984) The energy equivalents of ATP and the energy values of food proteins and fats. British Journal of Nutrition 51, 15–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesey, G (1985) Mitochondrial uncoupling and the isodynamic equivalents of protein, fat and carbohydrate at the level of biochemical energy provision. British Journal of Nutrition 53, 381–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesey, G (1987 a) ATP values of protein, fats and carbohydrates In Recent Advances in Obesity Research: V. Proceedings of 5th International Congress on Obesity 1986, Jerusalem, pp. 131–143.London: John Libbey.Google Scholar
Livesey, G (1987 b) Energy and protein requirements: the 1985 report of the 1981 joint FAO/WHO/UNU expert consultation. British Nutrition Foundation Bulletin 51, 138–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livesey, G (1990 a) Energy values of unavailable carbohydrate and diets: an inquiry and analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 617–637.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesey, G (1990 b) The impact of the concentration and dose of Palatinit® in foods and diets on energy value. Food Sciences and Nutrition 42F, 223–243.Google Scholar
Livesey, G (1991 a) Calculating the energy values of foods: towards new empirical formulae based on diets with varied intakes of unavailable complex carbohydrates. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45, 1–12.Google ScholarPubMed
Livesey, G (1991 b) Determinants of energy density with conventional foods and artificial feeds. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 50, 371–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesey, G (1992) Energy values of dietary fibre and sugar alcohols for man. Nutrition Research Reviews 5, 61–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesey, G (1994) Energy value of resistant starch. In Proceedings of the Concluding Plenary Meeting of EURESTA. pp.56–62. Brussels, Belgium: Commission of the European Communities.Google Scholar
Livesey, G (1995 a) Metabolizable energy of macronutrients. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62, 1135S-1142S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesey, G (1995 b) Impact of complex carbohydrates on energy balance. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49, s89–s96.Google ScholarPubMed
Livesey, G (1999 a) Comments on the Draft ANZFA Standard 1.2.8. Nutrition Labelling. Canberra: Australia New Zealand Food Authority.Google Scholar
Livesey, G (1999 b) Food energy: an international perspective. Chapter I. In Sweeteners and Lite Foods. Sydney: IBC Conferences.Google Scholar
Livesey, G, Buss, DH, Coussement, P, Edwards, DG, Howlett, J, Jonas, DA, Kleiner, JE, Muller, I & Sentko, A (2000) Suitability of traditional energy values for novel foods and food ingredients. Food Control 11, 249–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livesey, G, Elia, M (1995) Short-chain fatty acids as an energy source in the colon: metabolism and clinical implications. In Physiological and Clinical Aspects of Short-chain Fatty Acids, pp.472–482.[Cummings, JH, Rombeau, LJ & Sakata, T editors]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Livesey, G, Smith, T, Eggum, BO, Tetens, IH, Nyman, M, Roberfroid, M, Delzenne, N, Schweizer, TF & Decombaz, J (1995) Determination of digestible energy values and fermentabilities of dietary fibre supplements: a European interlaboratory study in vivo. British Journal of Nutrition 74, 289–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesey, G, Wilson, PDG, Roe, MA, Faulks, RM, Oram, LM, Brown, JC, Eagles, J, Greenwood, RH & Kennedy, H (1998) Splanchnic retention of intraduodenal and intrajejunal glucose in healthy adults. American Journal of Physiology 38, E709-E716.Google Scholar
MacDonald, I (1984) Differences in dietary-induced thermogenesis following the ingestion of various carbohydrates. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 28, 226–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCance, RA, WiddowsonEM, EM, (1991) The Composition of Foods.5th ed. [AA, Paul & Southgate, DAT, editors]. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Merrill, AL & Watt, BK (1973) Energy Value of Foods: Basis and Derivation. Agriculture Handbook no. 74. Washington, DC:ARS, US Department of Agriculture.Google Scholar
Miller, DS & Judd, PA (1984) The metabolisable energy values of foods. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 35, 111–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mollis, C, Flourié, B, Ouarne, F, Gailing, M-F, Lartigue, S, Guilert, A, Bornet, F & Galmiche, JP (1996) Digestion, excretion, and energy value of fructooligosaccharides in healthy humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64, 324–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nair, KS, Halliday, D & Garrow, JS (1983) Thermic response to isoenergetic protein, carbohydrate or fat meals in lean and obese subjects. Clinical Science 65, 307–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Research Council(1981) Nutritional Energetics of Domestic Animals: and Glossary of Terms, 2nd revision. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Newsholm, E & Leech, AR (1983) Biochemistry for the Medical Sciences. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley and Son.Google Scholar
Poppitt, SD (1995) Energy density of diets and obesity. International Journal of Obesity 19, Suppl. 5, s20–s26.Google ScholarPubMed
Poppitt, SD, Livesey, G & Elia, M (1998) Energy expenditure and net substrate utilization in men ingesting usual and high amounts of nonstarch polysaccharide. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 820–826.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prentice, AM (1995) Alcohol and obesity. International Journal of Obesity 19, s44–s50.Google ScholarPubMed
Prentice, AM (1996) Do calories from alcohol contribute to obesity? British Nutrition Foundation Bulletin 21, 45–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prosky, L, Asp, N-G, Schweizer, TF, DeVries, JW & Furda, I (1998) Determination of insoluble, soluble and total dietary fiber in foods and food products: Inter-laboratory study. Journal of Official Analytical Chemists 71, 1017–1023.Google Scholar
Raben, A & Astrup, A (1996) Manipulating carbohydrate content and sources in obesity prone subjects: effects on energy expenditure and macronutrient balance. International Journal of Obesity 20, s24–s30.Google ScholarPubMed
Raben, A, Macdonald, I & Astrup, A (1997) Replacement of dietary fat by sucrose or starch: effects on 14 d. ad libitum energy intake, energy expenditure and body weight in formerly obese and never obese subjects International Journal of Obesity 21, 846–859.Google ScholarPubMed
Roberfroid, M, Gibson, GR & Dezenne, N (1993) The biochemistry of oligofructose, a nondigestible fibre: An approach to calculate its caloric value. Nutrition Reviews 51, 137–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rochelle, RH & Horvath, SM (1969) Metabolic response to food and acute cold stress. Journal of Applied Physiology 27, 710–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubner, M (1902) Die Gesetz des Energieverbrauchs bei der Ernährung (The Rules of Energy Consumption in Nutrition). Leipzig, Germany: Franz Deuticke.Google Scholar
Rumpler, WV, Baer, DJ & Rhodes, DG (1998) Energy availability from corn oil is not different than that from beef tallow in high- or low-fibre diets fed to humans. Journal of Nutrition 128, 2374–2382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumpler, WV, Seale, JL, Miles, CW & Bodwell, CE (1991) Energy intake restriction and diet composition effect on energy expenditure in men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, 430–436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiemann, R, Nehing, K, Hoffman, L, Jentsch, W & Chudy, A (1971) Energetische Futterbewertung und Energienermen (Assessment of Food Energy and Energy Standards). Berlin: Deutsche Landwirtschaftverlag.Google Scholar
Schwartz, J-M, Acheson, KJ, Tappy, L, Piolino, V, M¨ller, MJ, Felber, JP & Jéquier, E (1992) Thermogenesis and fructose metabolism in humans. American Journal of Physiology 262, E591–E598.Google Scholar
Schwartz, J-M, Schultz, Y, Froidevaux, F, Acheson, K, Jean-Prêtre, N, Schneider, H, Felber, J-P & Jéquier, E (1989) Thermogenesis in men and women induced by fructose vs glucose added to a meal. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49, 667–674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonson, DC, Tappy, L, Jequier, E & Felber, JP (1988) Normalisation of carbohydrate-induced thermogenesis by fructose in insulin-resistant states. American Journal of Physiology 254, E201–E207.Google ScholarPubMed
Smith, T, Brown, JC & Livesey, G (1998) Energy balance and thermogenesis in rats consuming non-starch polysaccharides. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 801–819.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonko, BJ, Prentice, AM, Murgatroyed, PR, Goldberg, GR, van de Ven, M & Coward, WA (1994) The influence of alcohol on post-meal fat storage. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, 619–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Southgate, DAT (1969) Determination of carbohydrates in foods. II. Unavailable carbohydrate. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 20, 331–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Southgate, DAT (1975) Fiber and other unavailable carbohydrate effects in the diet.In Proceedings of the Western Hemisphere Congress, IV pp.51–55 [White, PL & Selvet, N, editors]. London: Publishing Science Group Incorporated.Google Scholar
Steiniger, J (1983) Untersuchungen zum Tagesenergieumsatz und zur Nährungsinduzierten Thermogenese bei Adipositas (study of daily energy balance and of dietary-induced thermogenesis in adipose tissue). Dissertation, Akademie Wissenschaft, Democratic Republic of German.Google Scholar
Stubbs, RJ, Harbron, CG, Murgatroyed, PR & Prentice, AM (1995 a) Covert manipulation of dietary fat and energy density: effect on substrate flux and food intake in men eating ad libitum. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62, 316–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stubbs, RJ, Ritz, P, Coward, WA & Prentice, AM (1995 b) Covert manipulation of the ratio of dietary fat to carbohydrate and energy density: effect on food intake and energy balance in free living men, eating ad libitum. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62, 330–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suter, PM, Schultz, Y & Jequier, E (1994) The effect of alcohol on fat storage in healthy subjects. New England Journal of Medicine 326, 983–987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tappy, L, Jequier, E & Acheson, K (1993) Thermic effect of infused amino acids in healthy human subjects and in subjects with insulin resistance. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57, 912–916.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, CD, Peters, JC, Reed, GW, Abumrad, NN, Sun, M & Hill, JO (1992) Nutrient balance and energy expenditure during ad libitum feeding of high fat and high carbohydrate diets in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55, 934–942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valencia, ME, McNeill, G, Brockway, JM & Smith, JS (1992) The effect of environmental temperature and humidity on 24 h energy expenditure in men. British Journal of Nutrition 68, 319–327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Es, AJH (1991) Dietary energy density on using sugar alcohols as replacements for sugars. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 50, 383–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Es, AJH, De Groot, L & Vogt, JE (1986) Energy balance of eight volunteers fed on diet supplemented with either lactitol or saccharose. British Journal of Nutrition 56, 545–554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warwick, PM & Baines, J (2000) Energy factors used for food labelling and other purposes should be based on a definition of metabolisable energy, not a definition of net (metabolisable) energy. British Journal of Nutrition 84, 897–902.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warwick, PM & Busby, R (1990) Influence of mild cold on 24 h energy expenditure in ‘normally’ clothed adults. British Journal of Nutrition 63, 481–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webster, AJF (1978) Measurement and prediction of methane production, fermentation heat and metabolism in the tissues of the ruminant gut. In Ruminant Digestion and Feed Evaluation, pp.81–810 [D, Osbourn, DE, Beever & DJThomson, editors Thomson, editors]. London: Agricultural Research Council.Google Scholar
Wolever, TMS (1997) Carbohydrate Absorption and Metabolism. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Carbohydrates in Human Nutrition. CARBOCON 18. Rome: FAO.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1985) Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consulation. Technical Report Series no. 724. Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar