Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T08:54:04.523Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Evolution of infant nutrition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2007

W. F. J. Cuthbertson
W. F. J. Cuthbertson
Affiliation:
19 Nevill Road, Rottingdean, Brighton BN2 7HH, UK
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Homo sapiens has developed during the course of over two million years. The social and physical conditions of life, the availability of milk and infant foods as well as the presence of diseases have all undergone radical transformations from the Stone Age, at first without and then with fire, to the hunter–gatherer, farmer–herder, agricultural and, now, developed societies. These changes in the human environment may have induced modifications in the length of pregnancy, the development of the neonate at birth, the duration of lactation, the composition of breast milk and use of weaning foods and milk substitutes. Darwinian selection for the nutrient, anti-infective and other components of breast milk may have been determined by the effects of nutrition, through genetic variations in milk composition, on the survival of infants and perhaps also on fecundity and disease resistance in later adult life. Today Darwinian selection may no longer be effective in maintaining or modifying human mammary function, because modern hygienic environments, together with the availability of nutritionally adequate breast-milk substitutes, permit infant survival even under conditions of total lactational failure. National and international promulgations strictly control the composition of infant formulas offered as breast-milk substitutes or as weaning foods. These recommendations are modified as beliefs suggest, and research indicates, the effects of nutrients and other factors on the health and well-being of the child. Preliminary observations on child health have often proved valuable in furthering research. Unquestioning acceptance of apparently desirable, but untested, epidemiological associations have led to unexpected but dangerous iatrogenic problems. Recommendations for change cannot safely be made without proper comparisons with present products and procedures under practical conditions. Such tests are time consuming and require protocols of appropriate statistical design and power while still meeting the required sociological and ethical constraints, but are essential to identify possible harmful effects of any proposed change. It is suggested that no novel ingredients should be added, or major changes permitted in any component, until appropriate trials have established the value and safety of the proposed modifications. Breast-feeding is vital to maximize infant survival in developing countries. There are major difficulties in assessing any differences in morbidity and mortality of breast-fed v. artificially reared infants in the developed world. Carefully controlled studies with comparisons of health and well-being, not only in infancy but throughout life, are desirable if the effects of infant nutrition on adult well-being, suggested by epidemiological studies, are to be validated and ultimately applied. There are considerable variations in the composition of breast milk. This variance suggests that it may ultimately be possible to design formulas better able to meet the needs of individual infants than the milk available from the mother's breast.

Keywords

EvolutionInfant nutritionBreast-feeding
Type
Review article
Information
British Journal of Nutrition , Volume 81 , Issue 5 , May 1999 , pp. 359 - 371
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 1999

References

Adebonojo, FO (1972) Artificial vs breast feeding. Clinical Paediatrics 11, 25–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allardice, RA, Shearman, DJC, McClelland, DBL, Marwick, K, Simpson, AJ & Laidlaw, RB (1974) Appearance of specific colostrum antibodies after clinical infection with Salmonella typhimurium. British Medical Journal iii, 307–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, JC, Keller, RP, Archer, P & Neville, MC (1991) Studies in human lactation: milk composition and daily secretion rates of micronutrients in the first year of lactation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54, 69–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition (1976) Commentary on breast feeding and infant formulas, including proposed standards for formulas. Pediatrics 57, 278–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aschaffenburg, R & Drewry, J (1957) Genetics of the b lactoglobulin of cow's milk. Nature 180, 376–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, DJP (1994) Mothers, Babies and Diseases in Later Life. London: BMJ Publishing Group.Google Scholar
Bauchner, H, Leventhal, JM & Shapiro, ED (1986) Studies of breast feeding and infection. How good is the evidence?. Journal of the American Medical Association 256, 887–892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brace, CL, Nelson, H, Kora, N & Brace, ML (1979) Atlas of Human Evolution, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Holt Reinhert & Winston.Google Scholar
Buss, DH (1968) Gross composition and variation of the components of baboon milk during natural lactation. Journal of Nutrition 96, 421–426.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canada Communication Group (1994) The Canadian Guide to Clinical Preventive Health Care. Ottawa: Canada Communication Group.Google Scholar
Carlson, SE, Werkman, SH, Rhodes, PG & Tolley, EA (1993) Visual acuity development in healthy preterm infants: effect of marine oil supplementation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58, 35–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, SE, Werkman, SH & Tolley, EA (1996) Effect of long chain n-3 fatty acid supplementation on visual acuity and growth of preterm infants with and without pulmonary dysplasia. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, 687–697.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cautley, E (1896) The Natural and Artificial Methods of Feeding Infants and Young Children. London: Churchill.Google Scholar
Central Statistical Office (1990) Annual Abstracts of Statistics, 1990, edition no. 126. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Chandra, RK (1979) Prospective studies of the effect of breast feeding on incidence of infection and allergy. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 68, 691–694.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chatfield, C & Collins, AJ (1980) Introduction to Multivariate Analysis. London: Chapman & Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Codex Alimentarius Commission (1976) Recommended International Standards for Foods for Infants and Children. Rome: FAO/WHO.Google Scholar
Courtenay, J & Santow, G (1989) Mortality of wild and captive chimpanzees. Folia Primatolgia 52, 167–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, MA, Hassam, AG & Rivers, JP (1978) Essential fatty acid requirements in infancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31, 2181–2185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, AS (1979) Morbidity in breast-fed and artificially fed infants. Journal of Pediatrics 95, 685–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cushing, AL & Anderson, L (1982) Diarrhea in breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Pediatrics 70, 921–925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cussen, GT (1978) Breast feeding and neonatal mortality. In Topics in Perinatal Medicine, pp. 79–87 [Wharton, BA, editor]. London: Pitman Medical.Google Scholar
Cuthbertson, WFJ (1976) Essential fatty acid requirements in infancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 29, 559–568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuthbertson, WFJ (1978) Nutritional aspects of milk products used for infant feeding. Journal of the Society for Dairy Technology 31, 182–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuthbertson, WFJ (1994) Infant foods in the United Kingdom from Victorian times to the present day. In Infant Nutrition, Issues in Nutrition and Toxicology 2, pp. 1–34 [Walker, AF and Rolls, BA, editors]. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Department of Health (1996) Guidelines on the Nutritional Assessment of Infant Formulas. Report on Health and Social Subjects no. 47. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Social Security (1974) Present Day Practice in Infant Feeding. Report on Health and Social Subjects no. 9. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Social Security (1977) The Composition of Mature Human Milk. Report on Health and Social Subjects no. 12. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Social Security (1980 a) Artificial Feeds for the Young Infant. Report on Health and Social Subjects no. 18. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Social Security (1980 b) Present Day Practice in Infant Feeding: 1980. Report on Health and Social Subjects no. 20. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Social Security (1988) Present Day Practice in Infant Feeding, Third Report. Report on Health and Social Subjects no. 32. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Downham, MAPS, Scott, R, Sims, DG, Webb, JKG & Gardner, PS (1976) Breast-feeding protects against respiratory syncytial virus infections. British Medical Journal 2, 274–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ESPGAN Committee on Nutrition (1977) Guidelines on infant nutrition. I. Recommendations for the composition of an adapted formula. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 262, Suppl., 1–19.Google Scholar
ESPGAN Committee on Nutrition (1982) Guidelines on nutrition III. Recommendations for infant feeding. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 302, Suppl., 1–27.Google Scholar
ESPGAN Committee on Nutrition (1991) Comment on the content and the composition of lipids in infant formulas. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 80, 887–896.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fallot, ME, Boyd, JL & Oski, FA (1980) Breast-feeding reduces incidence of hospital admissions for infection in infants. Pediatrics 65, 1121–1124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farquharson, J, Cockburn, F, Patrick, WA, Jamieson, CE & Logan, RW (1992) Infant cerebral cortex phospholipid fatty-acid composition and diet. Lancet 340, 810–813.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, DM, Horwood, JL, Shannon, FT & Taylor, B (1981) Breast-feeding, gastrointestinal and lower respiratory illness in the first two years. Australian Paediatrics Journal 17, 191–195.Google ScholarPubMed
Fildes, VA (1986) Breasts, Bottles and Babies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Fliesler, SJ & Anderson, RE (1983) Chemistry and metabolism of lipids in vertebrate retina. Progress in Lipid Research 22, 79–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
France, GI, Marmer, DJ & Steele, RW (1980) Breast-feeding and Salmonella infection. American Journal of Diseases of Childhood 134, 147–152.Google ScholarPubMed
Frank, AL, Taber, LH, Glezen, WP, Kassel, GL, Wells, CR & Praedes, A (1982) Breast-feeding and respiratory virus infections. Pediatrics 70, 239–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldbloom, RB (1997) Weighing the evidence: the Canadian experience. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65, Suppl., 584S–586S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, AE, Wiese, HF, Boelsche, AN, Haggard, ME, Adam, DJD & Davis, H (1963) Role of linoleic acid in infant nutrition. Clinical and chemical study of 428 infants fed on milk mixtures varying in kind and amount of fat. Pediatrics 31, 171–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harcourt, AH, Fossey, D & Sabatier, PJ (1981) Demography of Gorilla gorilla. Journal of Zoology of London 195, 213–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinig, MJ & Dewey, KD (1996) Health advantages of breast feeding for infants: a critical review. Nutrition Research Reviews 9, 89–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holliday, R (1996) The evolution of human longevity. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 40, 100–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, GE, Haasainen, K & Miller, HC (1983) Factors associated with infections among breast-fed babies and babies fed proprietary milks. Pediatrics 72, 300–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howarth, WJ (1905) The influence of feeding on the mortality of infants. Lancet ii, 210–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hytten, FE (1954 a) Clinical and chemical studies in human lactation. II Variation in major constituents during a feeding. British Medical Journal i, 176–179.Google Scholar
Hytten, FE (1954 b) Clinical and chemical studies in human lactation. III Diurnal variation in major constituents of milk. British Medical Journal i, 179–182.Google Scholar
Hytten, FE (1954 c) Clinical and chemical studies in human lactation. IV Trends in milk composition during course of a lactation. British Medical Journal i, 249–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hytten, FE (1954 d) Clinical and chemical studies in human lactation. V Individual differences in composition of milk. British Medical Journal i, 253–255.Google Scholar
Hytten, FE (1954 e) Clinical and chemical studies in human lactation. VII The effect of differences in yield and composition of milk on the infant's weight gain and the duration of breast feeding. British Medical Journal i, 1410–1413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hytten, FE (1954 f) Clinical and chemical studies in human lactation. IX Breast-feeding in hospital. British Medical Journal ii, 1447–1452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Innis, SM (1991) Essential fatty acids in growth and development. Progress in Lipid Research 30, 39–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Innis, SM, Nelson, CM, Lwanga, D, Rioux, FM & Waslen, P (1996) Feeding formula without arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid has no effect on preferential looking acuity or recognition memory in healthy full-term infants at 9 mo. of age. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64, 40–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Insull, W, Hirsch, J, James, T & Ahrens, EH (1959) The fatty acids of human milk II. Alterations produced by manipulation of calorie balance and exchange of dietary fats. Journal of Clinical Investigation 38, 443–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, J & Ashworth, A (1994) Patterns and determinants of infant feeding practices world wide. In Infant Nutrition, Issues in Nutrition and Toxicology 2, pp. 61–91 [Walker, AF and Rolls, BA, editors]. London: Chapman & Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kon, SK & Mawson, EH (1950) Human Milk. Medical Research Council Special Report Series no. 269. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Kramer, MS (1988) Does breast feeding help protect against atopic disease? Biology, methodology, and a golden jubilee of controversy. Journal of Pediatrics 112, 181–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamb, WH, Lamb, CMB, Ford, FA & Whitehead, RG (1984) Changes in maternal and child mortality rates in three isolated Gambian villages over ten years. Lancet ii, 912–914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larsen, SA & Homer, DR (1978) Relation of breast versus bottle feeding to hospitalisation for gastro-enteritis in a middle-class U.S. population. Journal of Pediatrics 78, 417–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, RB (1979) The !Kung San. London: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Levin, B, Mackay, HMM, Neill, CA, Oberholzer, VG & Whitehead, TP (1959) Weight Gains, Serum Protein Levels, and Health of Breast Fed and Artificially Fed Infants. Medical Research Council Special Report Series no. 296. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google ScholarPubMed
Lewin, R (1993) In the Age of Man, 3rd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Lewin, R (1998) Principles of Human Evolution: A Core Textbook. Oxford: Blackwell Science.Google Scholar
Lonnerdal, B, Keen, CL, Glazier, CE & Anderson, J (1984) A longitudinal study of Rhesus monkey Macacca mulatta milk composition: trace elements, minerals, protein, carbohydrate and fat. Pediatric Research 18, 911–914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucas, A, Morley, R, Cole, TJ, Gore, SM, Lucas, PJ, Crowle, P, Pearse, R, Boon, AJ & Powell, R (1990) Early diet in preterm babies and development status at 18 months. Lancet 335, 1477–1481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucas, A, Morley, R, Cole, TJ, Lister, G & Leeson-Payne, C (1992) Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm. Lancet 339, 261–264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClelland, DBL, McGrath, J & Samson, RR (1978) Antimicrobial factors in human milk. Studies of concentration and transfer to the infant during the early stages of lactation. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 271, Suppl., 1–20.Google Scholar
Macy, IG, Kelly, HJ & Sloan, RE (1953) The Composition of Milks. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council.Google Scholar
Marshall, L (1976) The !Kung of Nyae Nyae. Harvard: Harvard Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mettler, AE (1976) Infant milk powder feeds compared on a common basis. Postgraduate Medical Journal 52, Suppl. B, 1–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Mettler, AE (1982) Infant formula. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 299, Suppl., 58–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, SE, Cole, TJ, Poskitt, EME, Sonko, BJ, Whitehead, RG, McGregor, IA & Prentice, AM (1997) Season of birth predicts mortality in rural Gambia. Nature 388, 434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morley, R (1998) Food for the infant's brain. BNF Nutrition Bulletin 23, Suppl. 1, 65–76.Google Scholar
Neuringer, M, Anderson, GJ & Connor, WE (1988) The essentiality of n-3 fatty acids for the development and function of the retina and brain. Annual Reviews of Nutrition 8, 517–541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neville, MC, Allen, JC, Archer, PC, Casey, CE, Seacat, J, Keller, RP, Lutes, V, Rasbach, J & Neifert, M (1991) Studies in human lactation: milk composition, volume and nutrient composition during weaning and lactogenesis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54, 81–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ng-kwai-hang, KF (1997) Genetic polymorphism of milk proteins. In Advanced Dairy Chemistry, vol. 1, Proteins, pp. 405–456 [Fox, PF, editor]. London: Blackie Academic & Professional.Google Scholar
Oftedal, OT (1984) Milk composition, milk yield and energy output at peak lactation: a comparative review. Symposia Zoological Society London 51, 33–85.Google Scholar
Paine, R & Coble, RJ (1982) Breast feeding and infant health in a rural US community. American Journal of Diseases of Childhood 136, 36–38.Google Scholar
Paul, AA, Davies, PSW & Whitehead, RG (1994) Infant growth and energy requirements: updating values. In Infant Nutrition: Issues in Nutrition and Toxicology 2, pp. 117–141 [Walker, AF and Rolls, BA, editors]. London: Chapman & Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pullan, CR, Toms, GL, Martin, AJ, Gardner, PS, Webb, JKG & Appleton, DR (1980) Breast-feeding and respiratory syncytial virus infection. British Medical Journal 281, 1034–1036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Read, WW, Lutz, PG & Tajian, A (1965 a) Human milk lipids II. The influence of dietary carbohydrates and fats on the fatty acids of mature milk. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 17, 180–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Read, WW, Lutz, PG & Tajian, A (1965 b) Human milk lipids III. Short term effects of dietary carbohydrate and fat on fatty acids of mature milk. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 17, 184–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Registrar General (1908) Births, Marriages and Deaths for England and Wales for 1906. Sixty-ninth Report of the Registrar General. London: H.M. Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Reiter, B & Oram, JD (1967) Bacterial inhibitors in milk and other biological fluids. Nature 216, 328–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Research Subcommittee of the South-East England Faculty (1972) The influence of breast-feeding on the incidence of infectious illness during the first year of life. Practitioner 209, 356–362.Google Scholar
Ruff, CB, Trinkaus, E & Holliday, TW (1997) Homo. Body mass and encephalization in Pleistocene. Nature 387, 173–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saarinen, UM (1982) Prolonged breast feeding as prophylaxis for recurrent otitis media. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 71, 567–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, TAB (1993) Marine oils: metabolic effects and role in human nutrition. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 52, 457–472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sargent, JR (1997) Fish oils and human diet. British Journal of Nutrition 78, Suppl. 1, S5–S13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schorah, CJ & Smithells, RW (1991) Maternal vitamin nutrition and malformations of the neural tube. Nutrition Research Reviews 4, 33–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scowen, P (1989) Twenty-five years of infant feeding: 1964–1989. Midwife Health Visitor and Community Nurse 25, 293–305.Google Scholar
Shaw, JCL, Jones, A & Gunther, M (1973) Mineral content of brands of milk for infant feeding. British Medical Journal 2, 12–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, BD (1996) The Emergence of Agriculture. New York, NY: Scientific American Library.Google Scholar
Statutory Instruments (1997) The Infant Formula and Follow-on Formula (Amendment) Regulations 1997, no. 451, Food. London: The Stationery Office Ltd.Google Scholar
Taitz, LS & Byers, HD (1972) High calorie/osmolar feeding and hypertonic dehydration. Archives of Disease in Childhood 47, 257–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, B, Wadsworth, J, Golding, J & Butler, N (1982) Breast-feeding, bronchitis, and admissions for lower-respiratory illness and gastroenteritis during the first five years. Lancet i, 1227–1229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tripp, JH, Francis, DEM, Knight, JA & Harris, JT (1973) Infant feeding practices: a cause for concern. British Medical Journal 2, 707–709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tripp, JH, Wilmers, MJ & Wharton, BA (1977) Gastro-enteritis. A continuing problem of child health in Britain. Lancet 2, 274–276.Google Scholar
Tziboula, A (1997) Casein diversity in caprine milk and its relation to technological properties: heat stability. International Journal of Dairy Technology 50, 134–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization & World Health Organization (1965) Abnormal Haemoglobins in Africa. A Symposium Organised by the Council for International Organisations of Medical Sciences [Jonxis, JHP, editor]. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
US Preventive Services Task Force (1996) Guide to Preventive Services. Report of the US Preventive Services Task Force, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Van Aerde, JE & Clandinin, MT (1993) Controversy in fatty acid balance. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 71, 707–712.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watkins, CJ, Leeder, SR & Corkhill, RT (1979) The relationship between bottle feeding and respiratory illness in the first year of life. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 33, 180–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinberg, RJ, Tipton, G, Klish, WJ & Brown, MR (1984) Effect of breast-feeding on morbidity in rotavirus gastro-enteritis. Pediatrics 74, 250–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiner, S, Xu, Q, Goldberg, P, Liu, J & Bar-Yosef, O (1998) Evidence for the use of fire at Zhoukoudian, China. Science 281, 252–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, J (1998) Infant follow-on formulas: the next decade. BNF Nutrition Bulletin 23, Suppl. 1, 23–34.Google Scholar
Werkman, SH & Carlson, SE (1996) A randomised trial of visual attention of preterm infants fed docosahexaenoic acid until nine months. Lipids 31, 91–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widdowson, EM, Dauncey, MJ, Gairdner, DMT, Jonxis, JHP & Pelikan-Filipkova, M (1975) Body fat of British and Dutch infants. British Medical Journal i, 653–655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar