1 See Bell, Leslie, The failure of music appreciation, The Canadian Music Journal, Spring,. 1958, 20–7.Google Scholar

2 Examples of the comparative approaches to which I refer include those in Landis, Beth and Cardis, Polly, The Eclectic Curriculum in American Music Education: Contributions of Dalcroze, Kodaly and Orff, Washington, D.C.: M.E.N.C., 1972Google Scholar; and Mark, Michael, Contemporary Music Education, 2nd. ed., N.Y.: Schirmer, 1986.Google Scholar

3 The view of philosophy as a ‘second-order’ activity follows Scheffler, Israel, Reason and Teaching, Indianapolis and N.Y.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973, pp. 1, 2.Google Scholar A similar view of philosophy's contribution to religion is expressed in James, William, Varieties of Religious Experience (1902), rpt; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982, Lecture xviii, especially pp. 455–7.Google Scholar

4 The particular sources and editions from which I have drawn are as follows: The Appreciation of Music by Means of the ‘Pianola’ and ‘Duo-Art’: A Course of Lectures Delivered at Aeolian Hall, London. London: Oxford University Press, 1925Google Scholar; Music: The Child and the Masterpiece; A Comprehensive Handbook of Aims and Methods in all that is Usually Called ‘Musical Appreciation’. London: Oxford University Press, 1935Google Scholar; The Complete Book of the Great Musicians: A Course in Appreciation for Young Readers. 10th ed., London: Oxford University Press, 1942Google Scholar; Learning to Listen by Means of the Gramophone: A Course in the Appreciation of Music for Use in Schools. London: The Gramophone Co., 1921Google Scholar; The Listener's History of Music Complete: A Book for any Concert-goer, Gramophonist, or Radio Listener, Providing Also a Course of Study for Adult Classes in the Appreciation of Music. 6th ed., London: Oxford University Press, 1943Google Scholar; The Listener's Guide to Music, with a Concertgoer's Glossary. 10th ed., London: Oxford University Press, 1942Google Scholar; Everybody's Guide to Broadcast Music. London: Oxford University Press and Hodder and Stoughton, 1925Google Scholar; A Miniature History of Music for the General Reader and the Student. 2nd ed., London: Oxford University Press, 1934Google Scholar; The Columbia History of Music Through Ear and Eye, 3 vols., London: Oxford University Press and Columbia Gramophone Co., 1930–1932Google Scholar; The Radio Times Music Handbook, being a Complete Book of Reference Giving Both Meaning and Pronunciation of the Technical Words Found in Programmes. 4th ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1950Google Scholar; The Oxford Junior Companion to Music. London: Oxford University Press, 1954Google Scholar; and The Oxford Companion to Music. 10th ed., London: Oxford University Press, 1970.Google Scholar

5 Music, p. 27.

6 Music, pp. 27, 28.

7 Music, p. 10.

8 Music, pp. 122, 123.

9 Roger Sessions, The Musical Experience of Composer, Performer, Listener. N.Y.: Athenium, 1962Google Scholar; Dasilva, F. et al. , The Sociology of Music. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1984.Google Scholar

10 Weber, William, Mass culture and the reshaping of European musical taste, 1770–1870, International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, 8 (1), 1977, 5–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

11 Ringer, Alexander L., Musical taste and the industrial syndrome: a socio-musicological problem in historical analysis, International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, 5(11), 1974, 139–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

12 Blacking, John, How Musical is Man? London: Faber and Faber, 1976.Google Scholar

13 For another classification of roles in music see Silbermann, Alphons, The Sociology of Music, trans. Stewart, Corbet, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963, ch. 4.Google Scholar

14 See Langer, Susanne K., Philosophy in a New Key: A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite and Art. 3rd. ed., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957.Google Scholar An example of contemporary philosophical thought in music education is provided in Reimer, Bennett, A Philosophy of Music Education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1970.Google Scholar

15 Music, Pt. II; pp. 30, 32.

16 For a discussion of the political process underlying the Boston School Music Movement and the philosophical rationale offered by William Channing Woodbridge see Jorgensen, Estelle R., Engineering change in music education: a model of the political process underlying the Boston School Music Movement (1829–1838), Journal of Research in Music Education, 31, 1983, 67–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Woodbridge, William Channing's lecture, ‘On Vocal Music as a Branch of Common Education,’ revisited, Studies in Music (University of Western Australia), 18, 1984, 1–32.Google Scholar

17 See the introductory lecture entitled, ‘Musical Appreciation in Schools’, in The Appreciation of Music, pp. 3–28.

18 Music, p. 81. I am indebted to Iris Yob for the suggestion of the ‘restoration’ metaphor in her thesis in progress, Harvard Graduate School of Education.

19 Music, pp. 81, 82.

20 This taxonomy outlined in Jorgensen, Estelle R., A Critical Analysis of Selected Aspects of Music Education, Calgary: Department of Educational Administration, University of Calgary, 1977Google Scholar, parallels that in Thomas, Ronald B., MMCP Synthesis: A Structurefor Music Education, Elnora, N.Y.: Media Inc., n.d.Google Scholar In Western ‘classical’ music aspects of pitch are commonly divided into two classes: melody and harmony. In other non-Western classical traditions, for example, Hindustani, melodic elements may take percedence over harmonic implications.

21 I refer particularly to the contributions of Graham Vulliamy and John Shepherd instanced in: Shepherd, John, Virden, Phil, Vulliamy, Graham and Wishart, Trevor, Whose Music? A Sociology of Musical Languages. London: Latimer New Dimensions Ltd., 1977Google Scholar; Shepherd, John and Vulliamy, Graham, The application of a critical sociology to music education, British Journal of Music Education, 1, 1984, 244–66Google Scholar; Vulliamy, Graham, ‘A sociological view of music education: an essay in the sociology of knowledge, Canadian University Music Society Review, 5, 1984, 17–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

22 For an explication of the notion of ‘spheres of validity’ see Jorgensen, Critical Analysis. These ideas are being further developed in a book in progress, The Socialization Process in Music Education: An Alternative View of Music Education.

23 This parallels the metaphor of ‘pilgrimage’ suggested by Iris Yob in her thesis in progress, Harvard University Graduate School of Education.

24 Music, p. 123.

25 The concept of significant form is developed in Langer, Susanne, Philosophy in a New Key: A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite and Art. 3rd ed., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957Google Scholar; Feeling and Form: A Theory of Art Developed from Philosophy in a New Key. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1953.Google Scholar

26 Vaughan, Margery, Cultivating creative behaviour: energy levels and the process of creativity, Music Educators Journal, 59, 1973, 35–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

27 For example, Paynter, John (Music in the Secondary School Curriculum: Trends and Developments in Class Music Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982, pp. 23–6)Google Scholar points to the inadequacy of a music recording as an accurate representation of a musical performance and likens its value to ‘a photograph of a painting’ (p. 25). ‘The gateway to musical understanding,’ he writes, ‘is to work with sounds; to try things out for ourselves.’ (p. 24) While he argues for the equality of listening as a creative experience (pp. 126, 127) and of its importance in performance and composition, the priority of improvization and composition as generative or associative elements in motivating students to listen is evident. (See ch. 4, Appendix I.) Other approaches based on this assumption are found in: R. Schafer, Murray, Ear Cleaning, Scarborough, Ont.: Berandol, 1967Google Scholar; the Mannhattanville Music Curriculum Project (1965–1970) reported in Thomas, Ronald B., ed., MMCP Synthesis: A Structure for Music Education, Elnora, N.Y.: Media Inc., P.O. Box 17, n.d.Google Scholar; and Dennis, Brian, Experimental Music in Schools: Towards a New World of Sound, London: Oxford University Press, 1970.Google Scholar

28 Blume, Helmut, A National School of Music for Canada. Ottawa: Canada Council, 1978, p. 69.Google Scholar

29 Music, pp. 116–19.

30 Music, pt. V. Scholes digresses on issues of ‘Common Errors in History, Form, etc.’ (pp. 184–98) and ‘Coping with the Horrors of Musical Terminology’ (pp. 198–203).

31 Music, p. 99.

32 Music, p. 104.

33 Music, p. 105.

34 For information on the influence of Pestalozzianism on instruction in music, see Howard E. Ellis, The influence of Pestalozzianism on instruction in music, Doctoral dissertation, U. of Michigan, 1957.

35 We see this exemplified in Scholes' simplification of the sonata form (Music, pp. 88, 89) and in his reduction of all music forms to six (Music, p. 89).

36 Music, p. 118. See also p. 96.

37 Music, p. 167.

38 Music, pp. 158, 155.

39 Music, p. 169.

40 Music, pp. 161–63. Scholes suggests (Music, p. 166) that the teacher compile a ‘Listening Repertory’; ‘a minimum list of the finest and most typical madrigals, fugues, sonatas, symphonies, string quartets, waltzes, nocturnes, etc., (two or three of each, representative of different periods and of all the greatest composers), with which he intends that every pupil who passes through his hands shall, in the course of his school life, make an intimate acquaintance.’ This list could then be amended during the teacher's career.

41 Jorgensen, Estelle R., On excellence in music education, McGill Journal of Education, 15 (1), Winter, 1980, 94–103.Google Scholar

42 Music, p. 162.

43 Jorgensen, Critical Analysis, ch. 3.

44 Music, pp. 125–7.

45 Music, pp. 136, 137.

46 Music, pp. 177–84.

47 Music, p. 145.

48 Music, pp. 145, 146, 150.

49 Music, pp. 150, 151.

50 For example, see two well-established basal series: Eisman, Lawrence, Jones, Elizabeth, Malone, Raymond J., Making Music Your Own (Teachers edition, Grade 7), Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdett, 1968Google Scholar; Leonard, Charles, Krone, Beatrice Perham, Wolfe, Irving, Fullerton, Margaret, Discovering Music Together (Teachers edition, Book 7), Chicago: Follett Publishing Co., 1967.Google Scholar

51 See Scholes, The Appreciation of Music by Means of the ‘Pianola’ and ‘Duo-Art’.

52 Music, p. 173.

53 Music, pp. 144, 145.

54 Music, p. 206.

55 Macpherson, Stewart, The Appreciation, or Listening Class. Revised ed., London: Joseph Williams Ltd., 1936, ch. 9.Google Scholar

56 Music, pp. 208, 210.

57 The latter reference is found in Scholes, The Complete Book of the Great Musicians – a compilation of three volumes.

58 Learning to Listen, pp. 63–8.

59 The Complete Book of the Great Musicians, contents page for the Second Book.

60 The Complete Book of the Great Musicians, contents page for the Third Book.

61 It is interesting to compare the curriculum in Learning to Listen devised by Scholes with an earlier American music appreciation textbook by Anne Shaw Faulkner (published in first edition in 1913) entitled, What We Hear in Music: A Course of Study in Music History and Appreciation for Use in the Home, Music Clubs, Conservatories, High Schools, Normal Schools, Colleges and Universities, 4th ed., Camden, NJ: Victor Talking Machine Co., 1921.Google Scholar Her material is divided into four units: (1) learning to listen: national music; (2) the history of music; (3) the orchestra: the development of instrumental music; and (4) the opera and oratorio, each part consisting of thirty lessons with correlated recordings.

62 Jorgensen, Estelle R., School music performance programs and the development of ‘Functional Musical Literacy’: a theoretical model, College Music Symposium, 21, 1981, 82–93.Google Scholar