This is an unrevised version of the Presidential Address delivered at a meeting of the Society, on the theme of ‘Science, technical change and work’, in Manchester on 12 May 1984.

¹ Phillips, to Phillips, Ann, 11 08 1839Google Scholar, Phillips papers, reproduced in Morrell, J. B. and Thackray, A. W. (eds) Gentlemen of Science: early conespondence of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, London, 1984, p. 322.Google Scholar

² An excellent account is given by Donnelly, J. F., ‘The development of technical education in Bradford, 1825–1900’, unpublished MEd thesis, University of Leeds, 1982, of which pp. 17–44Google Scholar deal with scientific activity and education in Bradford before 1867.

³ Rowe, F. M. and Clayton, E. (eds), The Jubilee issue of the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists: 1884–1934, Bradford, 1934.Google Scholar

⁴ The Bradford Scientific Association, like the Bradford Natural History Society, was founded in 1875. It specialised at the research level in geology, leaving field biology to the Naturalists.

⁵ Sheppard, T., Yorkshire's contribution to science, with a bibliography of natural history publications, London, 1916, p. 8.Google Scholar

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⁷ James, J., The history and topography of Bradford, (in the county of York,) with topographical notices of its parish, London and Bradford, 1841, p. 19Google Scholar. This was not just routine rhetoric: pp. vii, ix, revealed that he could not publish by subscription because of the poor local response and that his research had not been greatly assisted by Bradfordians.

⁸ Scruton, W., Pen and pencil pictures of old Bradford, Bradford, 1889, pp. 107–8.Google Scholar

⁹ Ruskin, J., The crown of wild olive, London, 1906, p. 97Google Scholar, from his lecture ‘Traffic’ delivered in Bradford, , 21 04 1864 (first published 1866).Google Scholar

¹⁰ It is inexplicable that Patterson, E. C., Mary Somerville and the cultivation of science 1815–1840, The Hague, 1983, fails to mention Doreen Bronte.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹³ Briggs, A., Victorian cities, Harmondsworth, 1968, pp. 43, 47, 140–163.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Young, G. M., Victorian England: portrait of an age, Oxford, 1953, p. 124.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Fraser, D. (ed), The new poor law in the nineteenth century, London, 1976CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Digby, A., Pauper palaces, London, 1978.Google Scholar

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¹⁸ The population figures were: 16,000 in 1811; 26,000 in 1821; 44,000 in 1831; 67,000 in 1841; 104,000 in 1851. See Census of Great Britain, 1851. Population tables. I. Numbers of the inhabitants, in the years 1801, 1811, 1821, 1831, 1841, and 1851, Parliamentary Papers, 1853, 85, cxxvi–cxxvii.Google Scholar

¹⁹ For general material on Bradford there are two excellent recent books: Wright, D. G. and Jowitt, J. A. (eds), Victorian Bradford: essays in honour of Jack Reynolds, Bradford, 1982Google Scholar; Reynolds, J., The great paternalist: Titus Salt and the growth of nineteenth-century Bradford, Hounslow, 1983Google Scholar. Wright, D. G., ‘Politics and opinion in nineteenth-century Bradford 1832–1880’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Leeds, 1966, is also very valuable.Google Scholar

²⁰ Driver, C., Tory radical: the life of Richard Oastler, New York, 1946, pp. 36–70.Google Scholar

²¹ Elliott, A., ‘Social structure in the mid-nineteenth century’Google Scholar in Wright, and Jowitt, , Victorian Bradford, pp. 101–113.Google Scholar

²² Bradford observer, editorial, 4 08 1859Google Scholar; The Bradfordian, editorial, 1860, 1, 30.Google Scholar

²³ Behrens, J. (ed), Sir Jacob Behrens 1806–1889, London, n.d., p. 38Google Scholar; The Bradford Review, editorial, 22 12 1864.Google Scholar

²⁴ I owe this important point to Tony Jowitt. In 1838 Behrens thought Bradford, with a population of about 60,000 was still an overgrown village: Behrens, , Behrens, p. 38.Google Scholar

²⁵ Jowitt, J. A., ‘The pattern of religion in Victorian Bradford’Google Scholar in Wright, and Jowitt, , Victorian Bradford, pp. 37–61.Google Scholar

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²⁷ Second report of the Commissioners for inquiring into the state of large towns and populous districts. Appendix. Part II, Parliamentary Papers, 1845, 18, 315.Google Scholar

²⁸ Quoted in Reynolds, J., Saltaire: an introduction to the village of Sir Titus Salt, Bradford, 1976, p. 8.Google Scholar

²⁹ I. and Kuczynski, P. (eds), A young revolutionary in nineteenth-century England: selected writings of Georg Weerth, Berlin, 1971, p. 187Google Scholar. Weerth, Georg (1822–1856).Google Scholar

³⁰ Firth, G., Poverty and progress: social conditions in early and mid nineteenth century Bradford, Bradford, 1979, p. 6.Google Scholar

³¹ For Salt's report, see Bradford observer, 7 03 1850Google Scholar; on Saltaire, Reynolds, , Titus Salt, especially pp. 88–147Google Scholar for penetrating analysis of the period 1834–1850, which he designates as years of crisis. Salt, Titus (1803–1876), DNB.Google Scholar

³² For the Bradford temperance movement see: Harrison, B., Drink and the Victorians, London, 1971, pp. 95–97, 104–5, 191Google Scholar; Second annual report of the Bradford Temperance Society. Presented June 29, 1832, Bradford, 1832, pp. 9–13Google Scholar; Proceedings at the opening of the Bradford Temperance Hall on… 27th and 28th February, and 1st and 2nd March 1838, Bradford, 1838Google Scholar. Forbes, Henry (1794–1870).Google Scholar

³³ The dates of foundation of the principal Yorkshire lit and phils were: Leeds, 1818; York, Sheffield, Hull, and Whitby, 1822; Scarborough, 1827. Dirks, H., Popular education: a series of papers on the nature, objects, and advantages of mechanics' institutions, Manchester, 1841, p. 3Google Scholar, stressed that 1823–24 was the boom session, with large towns vicing with each other.

³⁴ On Sheffield and Derby and much else see Inkster, I., ‘Studies in the social history of science in England during the industrial revolution’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Sheffield, 1977.Google Scholar

³⁵ Bradford observer, editorial, 2 05 1874Google Scholar. Contrast the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science which held its third annual meeting in Bradford in 1859, and the British Association which held its 43rd annual meeting in the town in 1873.

³⁶ Phillips, J., Illustrations of the geology of Yorkshire. Part II. The mountain limestone district, London, 1836, pp. v–viiGoogle Scholar. The Bradford subscribers were John Armistead, John Wilmer Field, Samuel Hailstone, Henry Leah and John Hustler.

³⁷ The Bradfordian, editorial, 1862, 2, 2Google Scholar; Hanson, J., Free libraries; their nature and operations: four letters addressed to Mr Alderman Godwin, Bradford, 1867.Google Scholar

³⁸ Scruton, W., Bradford fifty years ago, Bradford, 1897, p. 97.Google Scholar

³⁹ Tylecote, M., The mechanics' institutes of Lancashire and Yorkshire before 1851, Manchester, 1957, pp. 224–5.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ My account is based on: ‘The first Bradford Philosophical Society’, Bradford Antiquary, 1905, 4, 462–4Google Scholar; minute book of the Bradford Philosophical Society, 1808–10, York Minster Library, Add Ms 204. There were three Yorkshire Joseph Priestleys who are still confused by the unwary: the discoverer of oxygen (1733–1804), DNB; the manager of the Canal, Leeds-Liverpool (1739/1740–1817)Google Scholar; and a son (c. 1767–1852) of the Canal manager, author of the still useful Historial account of the navigable rivers, canals, and railways, throughout Great Britain, London, 1831Google Scholar. Dawson, Joseph (1740–1813)Google Scholar; Leah, Henry (1772–1846)Google Scholar; Hailstone, Samuel (1768–1851), DNB.Google Scholar

⁴¹ My analysis of the 1822 Society draws on: list of subscribers reproduced in Bradford Review, 24 12 1864Google Scholar; Leeds Mercury, 21 09 1822Google Scholar; Leeds Intelligencer, 25 11 1822Google Scholar; Leeds Mercury, 18 and 23 01 1823Google Scholar, giving details of a meeting held on 15 January 1823 at which resolutions were adopted to establish a literary and philosophical Society, John Hustler in the chair; Scruton, , Old Bradford, pp. 90–91Google Scholar; James, , History of Bradford, pp. 245–6Google Scholar; Beaumont, Thomas's speech, Bradford observer, 31 01 1839Google Scholar. Hustler, John (1768–1842)Google Scholar of the well-known Quaker family; Beaumont, Thomas (1795–1859)Google Scholar, a surgeon; Heap, Henry (1789–1839)Google Scholar, vicar of Bradford 1816–39, was curiously one of the 42 subscribers. For Lowe's characterisation see Lowe, P. D., ‘Locals and cosmopolitans. A model for the social organisation of provincial science in the nineteenth century’, unpublished MPhil thesis, University of Sussex, 1978.Google Scholar

⁴² James, , History of Bradford, p. 248Google Scholar; British Library Add Mss 27,824, ff. 71–2; The journal of Dr John Simpson of Bradford. 1st of January to the 25th of July 1825, Bradford, 1981, pp. 13–14, 42Google Scholar; Rules of the Bradford Mechanics' Institute, established February 21st, 1825, Bradford, 1825Google Scholar. Pollard, Joshua (1794–1887)Google Scholar, Tory merchant and manufacturer; Baines, Edward (1800–1890), DNBGoogle Scholar; Farrar, Squire (1785–1873)Google Scholar; Jackson, John (d. 1873).Google Scholar

⁴³ For the views of Heineken, Nicholas Thomas (1763–1840)Google Scholar, and the controversy they provoked see his A discourse on the supposed existence of an evil spirit, called the devil; and also, a reply to lhe observations of Mr William Carlisle, of Dudley Hill, near Bradford, the ostensible author of an ‘essay on evil spirits’, written in opposition to the discourse which was delivered in the Unitarian chapel, Bradford, London, 1825Google Scholar; Carlisle, W., An essay on evil spirits; or, reasons to prove their existence, in opposition to a lecture, delivered by the Rev. N. T. Heineken, in the Unitarian chapel, Bradford, Bradford, 1825, p. 8 (quote)Google Scholar; Mann, I., Strictures on the Rev. N. T. Heineken's reply to Mr William Carlisle, in which is proved the close alliance that exists between Socinianism and Deism, Bradford, 1826Google Scholar; Heineken, N. T., Observations on the unity, supremacy, and free unpurchased mercy of God, in answer to the Rev. I. Mann's intemperate and arrogant strictures, on Mr Heineken's reply to Mr William Carlisle's essay on evil spirits, London, 1826Google Scholar. Mann, Isaac (d. 1831)Google Scholar was Baptist minister at Shipley near Bradford.

⁴⁴ On Heap, see James, , History of Bradford, pp. 213–14Google Scholar; Scruton, , Old Bradford, p. 34.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ My account draws on: Harrison, J. F. C., Learning and living 1790–1960: a study in the history of the English adult education movement, London, 1961, pp. 61–2, 174–7Google Scholar; Federer, C. A., The Bradford Mechanics' Institute. A History, Bradford Public Library, typescript, 1906Google Scholar; Tylecote, M., Mechanics' institutes, pp. 224–240Google Scholar; Farrar, J., Autobiography of Joseph Farrar, Bradford, 1889, pp. 45–51Google Scholar; Godwin, Benjamin, Autobiography, Bradford Public Library archives, typescript, pp. 537–9Google Scholar. For the start of Anglican default, see Mechanics, Bradford' Institute minutes book, 1832–1834, 27 03 1832Google Scholar, Bradford Public Library archives: Heap was invited to be a patron but declined.

⁴⁶ Second annual report of the committee of Bradford Mechanics' Institute … presented January 31, 1834, Bradford, 1834, p. 1.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Shapin, Compare S., ‘The Pottery Philosophical Society, 1819–1835: an examination of the cultural uses of provincial science’, Science studies, 1972, 2, 311–36 (esp. 333).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁸ Account of the proceedings connected with the inauguration of the Rev. J. Acworth as President of the Bradford Mechanics' Institute, September 26th, 1837, Bradford, 1837, 7 (quote), 8, 24Google Scholar. Speeches were given by: the Reverend Scott, Walter (1779–1858)Google Scholar, Principal of Airedale Congregationalist College, Bradford, 1834–58; and the Reverend Acworth, James (1798–1883)Google Scholar, President of the Baptist College, Bradford, 1835–59. Acworth enjoyed a double succession to the Reverend Steadman, William (1764–1837)Google Scholar, who was first President of the Baptist College, 1806–35, and first President of the Mechanics' Institute, 1832–7.

⁴⁹ Godwin, B., Lectures on the atheistic controversy; delivered in the months of February and March, 1834, at Sion chapel, Bradford, forming the first part of a course of lectures on infidelity, London, 1834, pp. v (quote)–xiGoogle Scholar; Godwin, , Autobiography, pp. 577–8Google Scholar; for Newman on scientific pursuits, see his Letters on an address delivered by Sir Robert Peel on the establishment of a reading room at Tamworth, London, 1841, esp. p. 41Google Scholar. Godwin, (1785–1871)Google Scholar left Bradford in 1836 for ten years. A good general survey of the infidel tradition is Royle, E., Victorian infidels: the origins of the British secularist movement 1791–1866, Manchester, 1974, esp. pp. 9–58.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ For the attack on Lamarck, Godwin, , Lectures, pp. 170–80Google Scholar; for that on Hume, , pp. 180–6, 190–231.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Farrar, S. and Wilkinson, C., An examination of the arguments for the existence of a deity, being an answer Mr Godwin's lectures on the atheistic controversy; with an appendix, containing observations on Lord Brougham's Discourse of Natural Theology, London, Leeds, Bradford, 1835, p. 33 (quotes)Google Scholar. For publication details of the 1835 work see Farrar, and Wilkinson, , An examination of the arguments for the existence of a deity; being an answer to Dr Godwin's ‘Philosophy of atheism examined and compared with Christianity’, London and Bradford, 1853.Google Scholar

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⁵⁴ New moral world, 1835, 1, 170. Volume 4 of this Owenite periodical was subtitled ‘Manual of science’.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Bower, S., A sequel to the peopling of utopia; or, the sufficiency of socialism for human happiness: being a further comparison of the social and radical schemes, Bradford, 1838, p. 13Google Scholar; New moral world, 1835–1836, 2, 336–8Google Scholar; 1837–8, 4, 384–5; 1838–9, 5, 493.

⁵⁶ Yeo, E., ‘Robert Owen and radical culture’ in Pollard, S. and Salt, J. (eds), Robert Owen prophet of the poor: essays in honour of the two hundredth anniversary of his birth, London, 1971, pp. 84–114.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ New moral world, 1841–1842, 10, 68–9 (quote)Google Scholar; ibid, 1843–4, 12, 119–20; ibid, 1837–8, 4, 362; ibid, 1840, 8, 333.

⁵⁸ Ibid, 1837–8, 4, 20, 171–2; 1838–9, 5, 74, 478; for the anti-Owenite speeches of Scott and Grubb, Edward (1801–1878)Google Scholar, the total abstinence advocate, see Proceedings at the opening of the Bradford Temperance Hall, pp. 70, 74–6.Google Scholar

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⁶⁰ New moral world, 1840, 7, 1173 (quote)Google Scholar; 1841–2, 10, 159; 1840, 8, 92 (quote).

⁶¹ Bradford observer, 21 and 28 03 1839.Google Scholar

⁶² Ibid, 11 April 1839. Sharp, William (1805–1896), DNB.Google Scholar

⁶³ Ibid, 11 and 18 April 1839; The laws and regulations of the Bradford Philosophical society, instituted the twelfth of April, 1839, Bradford, 1839Google Scholar. The Yorkshire Philosophical Society devoted itself inter alia to the geology of the whole of Yorkshire, whereas the Yorkshire Geological Society (founded 1837) concentrated on the geology and technics of the coal-field. Bradford is situated on the northern end of the coal measures and in 1839 was not negligible as a producer of coal and iron.

⁶⁴ Bradford observer, 6 02 1840Google Scholar. Farrar, Joseph (1805–1878)Google Scholar was a hatter and later insurance agent of dissenting and Liberal persuasions.

⁶⁵ Ibid, 23 January, 12 March, 23 April 1840; Bradford Mechanics' Institute minutes book, 1835–46, 10 March 1840, Bradford Public Library archives. For the notion of alert conservatism see Neve, M., ‘Science in a commercial city: Bristol 1820–60’, in Inkster, I. and Morrell, J. (eds), Metropolis and province: science in British culture, 1780–1850, London, 1983, pp. 179–204Google Scholar. For the abortive Chartist rising in Bradford, in 01 1840Google Scholar, see Peacock, A. J., Bradford Chartism 1838–1840, York, 1969Google Scholar; for distress in Bradford, see Scoresby, W., “What shall we do?” or, the enquiry of the destitute operatives considered. A sermon, preached at the parish church, Bradford, on Sunday, the 22nd of December, 1839, London, 1840.Google Scholar

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⁶⁷ Only two more annual Council reports were produced, i.e. for sessions 1840 1 and 1841 2; they reveal the Council's growing concern about the Society's viability. Montgomery, James (1771–1854), DNBGoogle Scholar; Robert Baker, a surgeon; Sharp, Samuel (1808–1874)Google Scholar, an architect; Nunneley, Thomas (1809–1870), DNBGoogle Scholar, a surgeon. For Hailstone's donations of specimens in 1842 to the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, see Annual report of the Council of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, for MDCCCXLII, York, 1843, pp. 11, 20–21.Google Scholar

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⁶⁹ Details of membership have been gained from Darlington's ‘Members of the Bradford Philosophical Society 1839’, Bradford Public Library archives, case 3, box 4, item 5.

⁷⁰ For Salt's preoccupations in the early 1840s, see Reynolds, , Titus SaltGoogle Scholar; for those of Forster, (1818–1886), DNBGoogle Scholar, see Reid, T. Wemyss, Life of the Right Honourable William Edward Forster, London, 1888, i, pp. 128–65.Google Scholar

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⁷² Miall, James Goodeve (1805–1896)Google Scholar, Congregationalist minister, Salem chapel, Bradford; John Howard Ryland, Unitarian minister; Fawcett, Joshua (1809–1864), DNBGoogle Scholar, Anglican minister, Low Moor, Bradford; Dury, Theodore (1789–1852)Google Scholar, rector of Keighley. The two active lawyers were Darlington and John Crofts, the Society's Curator; James, John (1811–1867), DNB.Google Scholar

⁷³ In 1826 John Garnett Horsfall, a Tory manufacturer, was the first in Bradford to use power looms; Fairbairn, William (1789–1874), DNBGoogle Scholar, the Manchester structural engineer was a competent experimental investigator. Lister, Samuel Cunliffe (1815–1906), DNBGoogle Scholar, developed machine combing and velvet power-loom weaving; Ripley, Henry William (1813–1882)Google Scholar solved the problem of dyeing mixed fabrics and by mid century owned the largest worsted dyeworks in the world.

⁷⁴ In 1836 Parsons, William (1800–1867)Google Scholar, DNB, married the elder daughter of John Wilmer Field of Heaton Hall, Bradford, and through her inherited property in the Bradford area; but he took no part in the third Philosophical Society, of which Lord Morpeth was the other aristocratic member.

⁷⁵ Scoresby has been served by two biographies: Scoresby-Jackson, R. E., The life of William Scoresby, London, 1861Google Scholar; T. and Stamp, C., William Scoresby, Arctic scientist, Whitby, 1975.Google Scholar

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⁷⁸ Retirement of the Rev George S. Bull from St James Church, Bradford, Yorkshire, Bradford, 1840Google Scholar; Judgment of the Lord Bishop of Ripon on the charges preferred by the Rev C. J. Pearson against the Rev Dr Scoresby, Vicar of Bradford, unpublished but signed 11 03 1843Google Scholar; Stamp, , Scoresby, 148Google Scholar; Bradford observer, 1 and 8 10, 1840, 5 and 12 08 1841.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Leeds intelligencer, 30 11 1839Google Scholar; Scoresby, , Lectures on Socialism; Bradford observer, 12, 19 (quote), 26 12 1839Google Scholar; Scoresby, , What shall we do.Google Scholar

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⁸⁶ See especially Scoresby, , American factories and their female operatives; with an appeal on behalf of the British factory population, and suggestions for the improvement of their condition, London, 1845Google Scholar; and Position and encouragements of Christian teachers: a discourse to Sunday School Teachers. Preached, March 9th, 1845, in the parish church of Bradford, London, 1846Google Scholar; A report of the Bradford Sanitary Committee appointed at a public meeting, held May 5th, 1845, Bradford, 1845Google Scholar; and generally, Stamp, , Scoresby, pp. 177, 186–201.Google Scholar

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