1 Peter Robin Morris, ‘The growth and decline of the semiconductor industry within the UK 1950–1985’, Open University PhD, December 1994; Anthony M. Golding, ‘The semiconductor business in Britain and the United States: a case study in innovation, growth and the diffusion of technology’, University of Sussex DPhil thesis, 1971.

2 For general information on gallium arsenide see Gibbons, G., ‘Gallium arsenide electronics’, Physics in Technology (1987) 18, pp. 5–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 16; and Brodsky, Marc H., ‘Progress in gallium arsenide semiconductors’, Scientific American (February 1990), pp. 56–63Google Scholar.

3 The Cray-3 supercomputer, delivered in 1993, is a rare example of the use of gallium arsenide to achieve faster processor speeds. See Pollack, Andrew, ‘A speedier chip finally gets a lift’, New York Times, 14 October 1987Google Scholar.

4 Morris, op. cit. (1), p. 313, see also p. 128. There was concern over the neglect of silicon in the late 1960s. For example, CVD's Solid State Physics Research Panel complained in 1966, ‘We believe that there remains an imbalance in the programme in that the support for work on silicon is inadequate in relation to the support for work on compound semiconductors. The panel are particularly concerned about the fact that the UK is still behind the US in silicon technology. Of the several (familiar) reasons for this situation we would pick out our failure to spend money on research into silicon technology right up to and including the production stage.’ ‘Solid State Physics Research Panel, Chairman's Report to CVD Research Advisory Board’, attached to CVD Policy Committee, 1 July 1966. UK National Archives [hereafter NA] ADM 272/244.

5 Golding, op. cit. (1), p. 352.

6 Morris, op. cit. (1), p. 129. Concerns about the supply of semiconductors for UK weapons systems led the Ministry of Defence to encourage the dominant US manufacturer, Texas Instruments, to set up a UK plant. See Morris, op. cit. (1), p. 319.

7 Morris, op. cit. (1), pp. 138–139.

8 Brodsky, op. cit. (2), p. 56.

9 Silicon still accounts for almost 99 per cent of the amount of semiconductor substrate produced (although less by cost), with GaAs and sapphire being the largest of the remainder. See ‘Compound semiconductor substrates 2010 market report’, 16 June 2010. Available at www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=289781.

10 On spin-off see Graham Spinardi, ‘Civil spin-off from the defence research establishments’, in Robert Bud and Philip Gummett (eds.), Cold War, Hot Science: Applied Research in the UK's Defence Research Laboratories, 1945–90, Amsterdam: Harwood Academic, 1999, pp. 371–392.

11 ‘Queens Awards for Technological Achievement, 1979 to 1991’. Leaflet produced by Defence Research Agency, Malvern, 1992.

12 Szweda, Roy, ‘GaAs the force multiplier – a GaAs Manhattan Project for the UK?’, III–Vs Review (February 1991) 4(1), p. 4Google Scholar.

13 For a reasonably readable account of how semiconductors work see Orton, John, The Story of Semiconductors, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004Google Scholar.

14 With Roland Ware, formerly of Plessey and Metals Research/Cambridge Instruments, Caswell, MA, 18 June 1999; Fred Myers, Plessey/GEC Marconi Caswell, 15 April 1999; Roy Szweda, Plessey Caswell and then editor of III–Vs Review, 27 January 1999; David Wight, SERL and then RSRE, 6 February 1991 and 9 March 1998; Don Hurle, RSRE, 25 October 1990; Ian Grant, Wafer Technology, 20 February, 1999.

15 Of those cited here, Morris worked at Mullard and Texas Instruments, Hilsum at SERL/RSRE and GEC, Parkinson at RRE/RSRE and then at the MoD (Director General of Establishments), Waldock at SERL and then Metals Research/Cambridge.

16 For a range of differing viewpoints encompassing these two extremes, see the debate in Trier, P.E., Gummett, P., Richards, J. and Wallard, A., ‘The effect of the defence sector on the UK electronics industry’, IEEE Proceedings (July 1988) 135, Pt. A, No. 6, pp. 419–430Google Scholar; also J.F. Barnes and B.R. Holeman, ‘The transfer of defence research on electronic materials to the civil field’, in E. Mondros and A. Kelly (eds.), ‘Technology in the 1990s: The promise of advanced materials’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1987) 322, pp. 335–346; Parkinson, D.H., ‘Defence research and civil spin-off’, Physics in Technology (1987) 18, pp. 244–249CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Seagram, M., ‘Does relatively high defence spending necessarily degenerate an economy?’, RUSI Journal (1986) 1, pp. 45–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 See Dickson, Keith, ‘The influence of Ministry of Defence funding on semiconductor research and development in the United Kingdom’, Research Policy (1983) 12, pp. 113–120CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 114; Stephen Robinson, ‘Government management of defence research since the Second World War’, in Bud and Gummett, op. cit. (10), pp. 393–415, 411–413; Peter Robin Morris, ‘A review of UK government involvement in the field of semiconductor technology within the research establishments’, in Andrew Goldstein and William Aspray (eds.), Facets: New Perspectivies on the History of Semiconductors, New Brunswick: IEEE Center for the History of Electrical Engineering, 1997, pp. 270–273; Golding, op. cit. (1), pp. 344–350.

18 Dickson, op. cit. (17), p. 114.

19 Dickson, op. cit. (17), p. 114.

20 This became part of the Defence Research Agency in 1991, renamed the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency in 1995. In 2001, part of DERA was privatized to form Qinetiq, with part retained under government control as the Defence Science and Technology Laboratories, with both organizations operating side by side at sites such as Malvern. A detailed account of electronics work at the RRE up to 1965 can be found in Dummer, G.W.A., ‘A history of microelectronics development at the Royal Radar Establishment’, Microelectronics and Reliability (1965) 4, pp. 193–219CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 Barnes and Holeman, op. cit. (16), pp. 335–346, 336.

22 CVD Policy Committee, Integrated Circuits, Note by the Chairman, 22 June 1966, NA ADM 272/244.

23 ‘Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Co-ordination of Valve Development Policy Committee to discuss Microelectronics held on the afternoon of Wednesday the 13th July’ (1966), NA ADM 272/244.

24 For an account of the origins of the NRDC see Keith, S.T., ‘Inventions, patents and commercial development from governmentally financed research in Great Britain: the origins of the National Research Development Corporation’, Minerva (1981) 19, pp. 92–122CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Haigh, G.E., Pearson, A.W., Watkins, D.S. and Gibbons, M., ‘NRDC and the environment for innovation’, Nature (20 August 1971) 232, pp. 527–531CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. A popular account of NRDC's work is Peter Fairley, Project X: The Exciting Story of British Invention, London: Mayflower, 1970.

25 On MinTech see Richard Coopey, ‘Restructuring civil and military science and technology: the Ministry of Technology in the 1960s’, in Richard Coopey, Graham Spinardi and Matthew Uttley (eds.), Defence Science and Technology: Adjusting to Change, Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Press, 1993, pp. 65–84; and Edgerton, David, ‘The “white heat” revisited: the British government and technology in the 1960s’, Twentieth Century British History (1996) 7, pp. 53–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 ‘Electronic materials’, NRDC Bulletin (April 1971) 37, p. 19. I am grateful to the British Technology Group (as NRDC was renamed) for providing me access to its archive of the NRDC Bulletin at its London headquarters.

27 This was replaced by the Gallium Arsenide Technology Consortium, a joint MoD–DTI body, in the mid-1980s. See Barnes and Holeman, op. cit. (16), p. 342.

28 Hurle, D.T.J., ‘National collaborative research into gallium arsenide’, Electronic Engineering (June 1985), pp. 149–153Google Scholar.

29 Szweda interview, op. cit. (14).

30 SERL Technical Report No. 59, May 1963, 1.2. I am grateful to the librarian at what was then the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency establishment at Malvern for providing access to these reports. See also ‘CVD office report to policy committee, March 1964: Development and device technology programme’, attached to ‘Co-ordination of Valve Development Policy Committee, Minutes of the 108th Meeting held on Wednesday, 4th March 1964’, NA ADM 272/244. This notes, ‘The pioneering S.E.R.L. GaP film marker, now being made at Ferranti under Ministry of Aviation contract, was well received by R.A.E. for aircraft cameras.’

31 SERL Technical Report No. 60, February 1964, 1.3.

32 SERL Technical Report No. 61, May 1964, 1.2 and 1.3.

33 SERL Technical Report No. 64, November 1965, 1. SERL did revive its interest in 1967. See ‘Minutes of the 8th Meeting of the CVD Special Devices Sub-Committee, 1st November 1967’, NA ADM 272/251.

34 See the various Minutes of the CVD Special Devices Sub-Committee between 1965 and 1970 in NA ADM 272/251.

35 ‘Solid State Physics Research Panel, Chairman's Report to CVD Research Advisory Board’, attached to CVD Policy Committee, 1 July 1966, NA ADM 272/244.

36 Ware interview, op. cit. (14).

37 ‘Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence, Directorate of Components, Valves and Devices, The Technical Committee’, Minutes of the 144th Meeting, 20 September 1974, NA ADM 272/263.

38 ‘Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence, Directorate of Components, Valves and Devices, The CVD Technical Committee’, Minutes of the 146th Meeting, 17 July 1975. NA ADM 272/263.

39 Cyril Hilsum, ‘Report of Display Devices Research Panel – July 1975’, 30 June 1975, NA ADM 272/263.

40 Cyril Hilsum, ‘Report of Display Devices Research Panel – July 1976’, RSRE, NA ADM 272/263.

41 ‘Chairman's Report on Applied Physics Research Panel’, CVD, June 1975, P. J. Dean, RRE, Malvern, NA ADM 272/263.

42 Ware interview, op. cit. (14).

43 See www.prpopto.com/about-us.html.

44 Wright, G.P., Services Electronics Research Laboratory, 1945–1976, London: HMSO, 1986, p. 10Google Scholar.

45 Report of Chairman of the CVD Research Advisory Panel to Policy Committee, June 1965, NA ADM 272/244.

46 James Turner, ‘History of the GaAs FET at Caswell (1964–1985)’, IEEE Colloquium on Modelling, Design, and Applications of MMICs, London, 1994, 1/1–1/3, 1/1.

47 Turner, op. cit. (46), 1/1–1/3; and Herbert, J.M. and Wilson, B.L.H., ‘Solid-state research at Caswell’, Physics in Technology (1986) 17, 132–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 136.

48 Turner, op. cit. (46), 1/1.

49 Baughan, K.M., ‘Microwave device development at Plessey’, Physics in Technology (November 1976) 7(6), pp. 254–259CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 254, has 1965; Herbert and Wilson, op. cit. (47), 136, have 1963.

50 ‘Solid State Physics Research Panel, Chairman's Report to CVD Research Advisory Board’, attached to CVD Policy Committee, 1 July 1966, NA ADM 272/244. See also Baughan, op. cit. (49), pp. 254–259.

51 Gunn, J.B., ‘Microwave oscillation of current in III–V semiconductors’, Solid State Communications (1963) 1(4), pp. 88–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

52 Orton, op. cit. (13), pp. 195–197.

53 Golding, op. cit. (1), p. 84.

54 Pretty, Ron, ‘R & D pay-off at the RRE’, Electronics Weekly, 8 November 1967Google Scholar; ‘Diversification in a government laboratory’, Nature, 11 November 1967, 216; ‘Spin-off: to industry from Malvern’, Engineering, 10 November 1967.

55 ‘Requirements for future power device research: a report to CVD Policy Committee’, Services Electronics Research Laboratory, Microwave Electronics Division, Harlow, Essex, June 1966, by M.O. Bryant, Chairman, CVD Power Devices Research Panel, Attached to CVD Policy Committee, 18 November 1966, NA ADM 272/244.

56 Turner, op. cit. (46), 1/1–1/2.

57 Turner, op. cit. (46), 1/2.

58 ‘Power Devices Research Committee – Chairman's Report to CVD Technical Committee – July 1977’, K.G. Hambleton, ASWE, Portsdown, Appendix 2 to ‘Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence, Directorate of Components, Valves and Devices, 150th Meeting of The CVD Technical Committee’, 19 July 1977, NA ADM 272/263.

59 Pengelly, R.S. and Turner, J.A., ‘Monolithic Broadband GaAs FET Amplifiers’, Electronics Letters (13 May 1976) 12(10), pp. 251–252CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60 Hurle, op. cit. (28), p. 149.

61 Hurle, op. cit. (28), p. 152.

62 Myers interview, op. cit. (14).

63 Myers interview, op. cit. (14); Duncan, Helen, ‘Staff anger at Bookham GaAs line closure’, Microwave Engineering, 27 May 2004Google Scholar; Turner, Jim, ‘Europe's premier foundry operation’, III–Vs Review (October 1991) 4(5), 58–60Google Scholar.

64 Courtaulds had similar problems with its carbon fibre operations. See Spinardi, Graham, ‘Industrial exploitation of carbon fibre in the UK, USA and Japan’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management (2002) 14, 381–398CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Stephen Entwhistle, vice president of strategic technologies practice at Strategy Analytics, quoted in Duncan, op. cit. (63).

66 Wight 1998 interview, op. cit. (14).

67 Duncan, op. cit. (63).

68 See http://compoundsemi.com/documents/view/cldoc.php3?id=8724#top.

69 ‘Filtronic sale is new dawn for GaAs in Europe’, EE Times, 17 March 2008, http://eetimes.eu/en/filtronic-sale-is-new-dawn-for-gaas-in-europe?cmp_id=7&news_id=206903961.

70 SERL Technical Journal (November 1960) 54, pp. 1–4.

71 Blackwell, G.R., ‘Green light for LEDs’, NRDC Bulletin (Autumn 1975) 43, p. 5Google Scholar.

72 See SERL Report (November 1960) 54, pp. 1–9; Parkinson, op. cit. (16), pp. 246–247.

73 Blackwell, op. cit. (71), p. 6.

74 ‘Electronic materials’, NRDC Bulletin (April 1971) 37, p. 20.

75 Blackwell, op. cit. (71), p. 6.

76 Ware interview, op. cit. (14).

77 Ware interview, op. cit. (14). See also ‘Rowland Ware on old and new perspectives in materials science’, III–V Technology Review (1987) 3, p. 18.

78 Blackwell, op. cit. (71), pp. 5–6.

79 Blackwell, op. cit. (71), p. 8. See also Barnes and Holeman, op. cit. (16), p. 30.

80 ‘As Cambridge fares, so fares the industry’, III–V Technology Review (1987) 4, p. 44.

81 Interview with Roger Waldock, in ‘As Cambridge fares’, op. cit. (80), p. 45.

82 Interview with Roger Waldock, in ‘As Cambridge fares’, op. cit. (80), p. 44.

83 ‘Rowland Ware on old and new perspectives in materials science’, op. cit. (77), p. 21.

84 ‘Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence, Directorate of Components, Valves and Devices, The CVD Technical Committee’, Minutes of the 147th Meeting, 11 December 1975, NA ADM 272/263. See also Hurle, op. cit. (28), p. 149.

85 Ware interview, op. cit. (14).

86 Hurle, op. cit. (28), pp. 149–153, 150.

87 Hurle, op. cit. (28), p. 150.

88 Interview with Roger Waldock, in ‘As Cambridge fares’, op. cit. (80), p. 46.

89 Grant interview, op. cit. (14) .

90 Interview with Roger Waldock in ‘As Cambridge fares’, op. cit. (80), p. 45.

91 ‘A UK strategy for GaAs’, edited by David Colliver and produced by the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment in the mid-1980s (undated), 14. This was provided to me on a visit to RSRE in 1990.

92 McDonald, Jo Ann, ‘DoD funds provide timely stimulus for US GaAs producers’, III–Vs Review (February 1995) 8, pp. 26–28Google Scholar.

93 News Release, ‘Department of Defense Program Contributes to Turnaround in a Key Semiconductor Materials Industry’, 17 April 1998, at www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=1650, accessed 5 August 2009.

94 Barnes and Holeman, op. cit. (16), p. 339.

95 Wight 1998 interview, op. cit. (14).

96 Wight 1998 interview, op. cit. (14).

97 Wright, op. cit. (44), p. 16.

98 ‘Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence, Directorate of Components, Valves and Devices, the CVD Technical Committee’, Minutes of the 148th Meeting, 15 July 1976, NA ADM 272/263.

99 ‘Optoelectronic Detector Research Panel – Chairman's Report to CVD Technical Committee, June 1976’, NA ADM 272/263.

100 ‘Optoelectronics Detector Development Committee, Chairman's Report to CVD Technical Committee, June 1977’, Appendix 3 to ‘Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence, Directorate of Components, Valves and Devices, 150th Meeting of The CVD Technical Committee’, 19 July 1977, NA ADM 272/263.

101 ‘Electronics Research Council, Department of Industry, Optics and Infra-red Committee, Extracts from Research Programmes of the Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence’, P. J. Holmes, 11 August 1976, NA DEFE 35/5.

102 Wight 1998 interview, op. cit. (14).

103 The role of the UK defence establishments in the development of pyroelectric technology is described in Watton, R., ‘Infrared television: thermal imaging with the pyroelectric vidicon’, Physics in Technology (1980) 11, pp. 62–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Putley, E., ‘Infrared spin-off’, Physics in Technology (1986) 17, pp. 32–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104 Wight 1991 interview, op. cit. (14) .

105 Wight 1998 interview, op. cit. (14).

106 See, for example, P.R. Jordan, P. Pool and S.M. Tulloch, ‘The secrets of E2V technologies CCDs’, in Paola Amico, James W. Beletic and Jenna E. Beletic (eds.), Scientific Detectors for Astronomy, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004, pp. 115–122.

107 ‘Minutes of the Fifth Meeting of the CVD Panel on Laser Research’, 4 October 1966, ‘Appendix II, Notes on Mr Gooch's talk on injection lasers’, NA ADM 272/248.

108 SERL Technical Report (May 1966) 65, p. 1. Standard Telecommunications Laboratories was the research arm of Standard Telephones and Cables. They had been in receipt of CVD funding to work on GaAs lasers from at least 1963. See ‘Minutes of the 4th Meeting of the CVD Optical Maser Working Party held on 25th September, 1963’, NA ADM 272/248.

109 Richard Mills, ‘Laser research and development, 1960–80’, in Bud and Gummett, op. cit. (10), p. 283. See also idem, ‘British defence expenditure and the growth of technology: a case study of laser technology 1960–1970’, University of Lancaster PhD, 1995. For the concentration of CVD on GaAs laser support see ‘Report to the CVD Technical Committee from the Chairman of the Laser Panel – 1974’, NA ADM 272/263.

110 See ‘Ministry of Defence, Department for Co-ordination of Valve Development, Technical Committee’, Minutes of the 135th Meeting, 2 December 1970, NA ADM 272/263.

111 ‘Ministry of Defence, Department for Co-ordination of Valve Development, The Technical Committee’, Minutes of the 137th Meeting, 13 July 1971, NA ADM 272/263.

112 ‘Report for CVD Technical Committee CVD Development Projects – lasers’, attached to ‘Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence, Department of Components, Valves and Devices, The Technical Committee’, Minutes of the 140th Meeting, 22 November 1972, NA ADM 272/263.

113 ‘Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence, Directorate of Components, Valves and Devices, The CVD Technical Committee’, Minutes of the 146th Meeting, 17 July 1975, NA ADM 272/263.

114 Wight 1998 interview, op. cit. (14).

115 D.A. Anderson and C.R. Whitehouse, ‘Low dimensional structures’, in RSRE Research Review 1985, London: HMSO, 1985, pp. 136–141.

116 ‘Global tech firm out of Nortel's ashes’, Herald Express, 25 February 2010. See www.thisissouthdevon.co.uk/news/Global-tech-firm-Nortel-s-ashes/article-1866351–detail/article.html.

117 Carter, Andy, ‘Unlocking the value of fab ownership’, Compound Semiconductor (1 February 2010)Google Scholar, available at http://compoundsemiconductor.net/csc/features-details.php?id=19607287.

118 On Cambridge Instruments and MOVPE see ‘As Cambridge fares’, op. cit. (80), p. 43.

119 Barnes and Holeman, op. cit. (16), p. 339.

120 ‘Electronic materials’, NRDC Bulletin (April 1971) 37, p. 20.

121 Epichem was taken over by the US based Sigma-Aldrich Corporation in February 2007. See www.sigmaaldrich.com/SAFC/Hitech.html, accessed 19 December 2007.

122 Wight 1998 interview, op. cit. (14) .

123 Hurle, op. cit. (28), p. 151.

124 Barnes and Holeman, op. cit. (16), p. 339.

125 Hurle, op. cit. (28), p. 153.

126 Hurle interview, op. cit. (14).

127 In the mid-1980s a strategy document produced by the UK Royal Radar and Signals Establishment stated, ‘The use of high speed logic for fast computers has until recently been realised exclusively using silicon integrated circuit technology. However, the improvements of Gallium Arsenide devices has been such that they are likely to used for the next generation of high speed machines.’ ‘A UK strategy for GaAS’, op. cit. (91). GaAs's potential for high-speed computing was probably emphasized by proponents of the technology to increase public awareness and political support. Szweda interview, op. cit. (14).

128 Szweda interview, op. cit. (14).

129 See Morris, op. cit. (1), 130.

130 Szweda interview, op. cit. (14).

131 Quoted in Morris, op. cit. (17), pp. 291–292.

132 Dickson, op. cit. (17), pp. 115 and 118.

133 Morris, op. cit. (17), p. 272.

134 Dickson, op. cit. (17), p. 118.

135 Dickson, op. cit. (17), p. 118.

136 Morris, op. cit. (17), p. 282.

137 Advisory Council on Science and Technology (ACOST), Defence R & D: A National Resource, 1989.

138 Quoted in Aris, Stephen, Arnold Weinstock and the Making of GEC, London: Aurum Press, 1998, p. 118Google Scholar.

139 See the tables reproduced in Edgerton, David, Science, Technology and the British Industrial ‘Decline’ 1870–1970, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 62Google Scholar.

140 UK pharmaceutical industry's investment record can be explained, at least in part, by the government drug procurement system that in effect guarantees a certain return on investment. For an analysis of the performance of the British electronics and pharmaceutical industries see G. Owen, ‘National environment and international competitiveness: a comparison of the British pharmaceutical & electronics industries’, Centre for Economic Performance, Working Paper No. 561, March 1994.

141 Oral evidence provided by a delegation chaired by Professor Cyril Hilsum to the House of Lords’ Science and Technology Committee, regarding the inquiry into Innovations in Microprocessing (8 May 2002), available at www.ioppublishing.com/activity/policy/Consultations/Industry_and_Innovation/page_29796.html.

142 Morris, op. cit. (1), p. 325.

143 Martin Fransman, ‘The Japanese innovation system: how does it work?’, in Mark Dodgson and Roy Rothwell (eds.), The Handbook of Industrial Innovation, Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1994, pp. 67–77, 68.

144 ‘Rowland Ware on old and new perspectives in materials science’, op. cit. (77), p. 22.

145 Orton, op. cit. (13), p. 246.

146 GEC was originally a highly diversified company that shifted its emphasis increasingly towards defence work. See Aris, op. cit. (138); also Brummer, Alex and Cowe, Roger, Weinstock: The Life and Times of Britain's Premier Industrialist, London: HarperCollinsBusiness, 1998Google Scholar.

147 Bowen, David, ‘Too cautious, my Lord’, Independent on Sunday, 18 June 1995, p. 3Google Scholar.

148 See Aris, op. cit. (138), p. 115.

149 McKinsey & Company, Inc., Performance and Competitive Success Strengthening Competitiveness in UK Electronics, 1988Google Scholar, quoted in Aris, op. cit. (138), p. 164.

150 Hilsum, Cyril, ‘The use and abuse of III–V compounds’, in Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics (1995) 91, pp. 171–188CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 171.

151 A similar problem occurred with UK manufacturing of carbon fibre when Courtaulds invested heavily in the late 1980s only to find that demand slumped following the end of the Cold War. See Spinardi, op. cit. (64).

152 Morris, op. cit. (17), p. 286.

153 Spinardi, op. cit. (64).

154 See Morris, op. cit. (1).