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⁴ See Schroeder, Brigitte, ‘Caractéristiques des relations scientifiques internationales, 1870–1914’, Cahiers d'histoire mondiale (1966), 10, 166–77Google Scholar; Gruber, Carol S., Mars and Minerva: World War I and the Uses of the Higher Learning, Baton Rouge, 1975Google Scholar; and Rudy, Willis, Total War and Twentieth-Century Higher Learning: Universities of the Western World in the First and Second World Wars, London, 1991.Google Scholar

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¹⁴ See Taylor, A. J. P., The First World War, Harmondsworth, 1963, 38.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Kranz, Walter, ‘Militärgeologie’, Kriegstechnische Zeitschrift (1913), 10, 464–71Google Scholar. Kranz, 's views were aired publicly in early 1914: see ‘Militärgeologie’, Straβburger Post, 10 02 1914Google Scholar. There is a suggestion that he inspired the Minister of War to propose a geological service for the army in the Reichstag in 1913, but no action was taken before the war. See Rose, Lt.-Col. E. P. F., ‘Geology in war’, The Royal Engineers Journal (1978), 92, 183.Google Scholar

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²³ Friedrich Carl Albrecht Penck (1858–1945), pre-war Director of the Geographische Institut in the University of Vienna, and sometime visiting professor at Columbia and Yale. Penck was Rektor of the University of Berlin in 1917–18. After the war, he gave currency to the concept of Lebensraum and its associated vocabulary of nationalism. See Poggendorff, , op. cit. (17), viia, 894Google Scholar and Beckinsale, Robert P., ‘Albrecht Penck’, DSB, x, 501–6Google Scholar. Penck's war work is not mentioned in either source. But see National Academy of Sciences Archives (Washington, DC) (hereafter, NAS Archives), Brooks, Alfred, ‘Plans for applying Geology to Military Purposes’, 24 10 1917.Google Scholar

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¹¹¹ Schroeder-Gudehus, Brigitte, Les Scientifiques et la paix: La communauté scientifique internationale au cours des années 20, Montreal, 1978Google Scholar; Lyons, F. S. L., Internationalism in Europe, 1815–1914, Leiden, 1963Google Scholar; and Crawford, Elisabeth, Shinn, Terry and Sörlin, Sverker (eds.), Denationalizing Science: The Context of International Scientific Practice, Dordrecht, 1992.Google Scholar

¹¹² See Forman, Paul, ‘Scientific internationalism and the Weimar physicists: the ideology and its manipulation in Germany after World War I’, Isis (1973), 64, 151–80Google Scholar. To the best of my knowledge, no comparable study has yet been made of Weimar geologists.