1 One reason why we have decided to look into these matters is our involvement in a new research programme aiming at reconstructing the history of the earth sciences, especially in Europe, after 1945. Funded by the European Research Council, The Earth under Surveillance – TEUS (241009) examines the emergence of earth and environmental sciences as a result of the development of new forms of transnational patronage related to Cold War diplomatic and military needs. We acknowledge and thank Peder Roberts, Leucha Veneer and two anonymous referees for their comments and suggestions.

2 Pierre Y. Saunier, ‘Entry: transnational’, in Akira Iriye and Pierre-Yves Saunier (eds.), The Palgrave Dictionary of Transnational History, New York: Palgrave, 2009, pp. 1047–1055. For previous uses see, for instance, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, Transnational Relations and World Politics, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973.

3 On the implications of using these new means for archival work see, for instance, Bruce V. Lewenstein, ‘The history of now: reflections on being a “contemporary archivist”’, in Ron Doel and Thomas Söderqvist (eds.), The Historiography of Contemporary Science, Technology and Medicine: Writing Recent Science, London and New York: Routledge, 2006, pp. 31–42.

4 Iriye, Akira, ‘The internationalization of history’, American Historical Review (1989) 94, pp. 1–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Ian Tyrrell, ‘What is Transnational History?’ Excerpt of a paper given at the Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociale (Paris) in January 2007. Available at http://iantyrrell.wordpress.com/what-is-transnational-history, last accessed 13 September 2010. See also Iriye, op. cit. (4). Instrumental to these developments were the special issues on transnational history in the Journal of American History, and conferences were held at La Pietra (Florence, Italy). Thelen, David, ‘The nation and beyond: transnational perspectives on United States history’, Journal of American History (1999) 86, pp. 965–975CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Bender, Thomas (ed.), Rethinking American History in a Global Age, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Iriye and Saunier, op. cit. (2).

7 Palgrave's Dictionary offers an insight into this richness of themes and issues. See also Iriye, Akira, ‘Transnational history’, Contemporary European History (2004) 13, pp. 211–222CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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9 Bayly, Christopher A., Beckert, Sven, Connelly, Matthew, Hofmeyr, Isabel, Kozol, Wendy and Seed, Patricia, ‘AHR conversation: on transnational history’, American Historical Review (2006) 111, pp. 1441–1464CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 However, according to Kiran Patel, the emphasis on European connections has hindered the transformation of these approaches into fully fledged transnational perspectives. Patel, Kiran K., ‘“Transnations” among “transnations”? the debate on transnational history in the United States and Germany’, Center for European Studies Working Paper Series (2008) 159, pp. 6–7Google Scholar.

11 On transfer and comparative history see Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Jürgen Kocka, ‘Comparative history: methods, aims, problems’, in Deborah Cohen and Maura O'Connor (eds.), Comparison and History, London: Routledge, 2004, pp. 23–39. On histoire croisée see Werner, Michael and Zimmermann, Bénédicte, ‘Penser l'historie croisée. Entre empirie et réflexivité’, Annales (2003) 58, pp. 7–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Werner, Michael and Zimmermann, Bénédicte, ‘Beyond comparison: histoire croisée and the challenge of reflexivity’, History and Theory (2006) 45, pp. 30–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Saunier, Pierre-Yves, ‘Going transnational? News from down under’, Historical Social Research (2006) 31, pp. 118–131Google Scholar. More recently, Saunier and Akira Iriye have argued that transnational history deals with ‘links and flows’ and the tracking of ‘people, ideas, products, processes and patterns that operate over, across, through, beyond, above, under, or in-between polities and societies’. Iriye and Saunier, op. cit. (2), p. xxviii.

13 Such as the monograph Raj, Kapil, Relocating Modern Science: Circulation and the Construction of Knowledge in South Asia and Europe, 1650–1900, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and the edited volumes Simon, Josep and Herran, Néstor (eds.), Beyond Borders: Fresh Perspectives in History of Science, Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2008Google Scholar; Schaffer, Simon, Roberts, Lissa, Raj, Kapil and Delbourgo, James (eds.), The Brokered World: Go-Betweens and Global Intelligence, 1770–1820, Sagamore Beach: Science History Publishing, 2009Google Scholar. See also Simon Schaffer's recent participation in the Writing the History of the Global: Challenges for the 21st Century conference, Institute for Historical Research, May 2009 (www.history.ac.uk/events/conferences/729). The Palgrave Dictionary of Transnational History covers scientific issues in few entries (scientific expeditions and stations, scientific instruments, prizes, standards, mathematics and medicine). On the other hand, the history of technology is well represented.

14 Sarton, for example, stated that Isis would ‘denounce on every possible occasion the imperialist tendencies that some scientists try to impose on the science of their country or of their race’, while Koyré's history of scientific ideas had as a guiding principle the will to show ‘the unity of human thought, particularly in its highest forms’. On the idea of the universality of science see Somsen, Geert J., ‘A history of universalism: conceptions of the internationality of science from the Enlightenment to the Cold War’, Minerva (2008) 46, pp. 361–379CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Werskey, Gary, ‘The Marxist critique of capitalist science: a history in three movements?’, Science as Culture (2007) 16, pp. 397–461CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Young, Robert M., ‘Marxism and the history of science’, in Robert C. Olby et al. (eds.), Companion to the History of Modern Science, London: Routledge, 1990, pp. 77–86Google Scholar.

16 Shapin, Steven, ‘History of science and its sociological reconstructions’, History of Science (1982) 20, pp. 157–211CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘Discipline and bounding: the history and sociology of science as seen through the externalism–internalism debate’, History of Science (1993) 30, pp. 333–369Google Scholar. See also Werskey, op. cit. (15).

17 Galison, Peter and Hevly, Bruce (eds.), Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Laboratories, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992Google Scholar; Leslie, Stuart W., The Cold War and American Science: The Military–Industrial Complex at MIT and Stanford, New York: Columbia University Press, 1992Google Scholar; Hughes, Jeff, The Manhattan Project: Big Science and the Atom Bomb, London: Icon, 2003Google Scholar.

18 Crawford, Elisabeth, Shinn, Terry and Sörlin, Sverker (eds.), Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1993CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pyenson, Lewis, ‘An end to national science: the meaning and the extension of local knowledge’, History of science (2002) 40, pp. 251–290CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. Krige, John and Barth, Kai-Henrik (eds.), Global Power Knowledge, Osiris (2006) 22Google Scholar.

19 Morrell, Jack B., ‘The chemist breeders: the research schools of Liebig and Thomas Thomson’, Ambix (1972) 19, pp. 1–46CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Geison, Gerald L. and Holmes, Frederick L. (eds.), Research Schools: Historical Reappraisals, Osiris (1993) 8Google Scholar; Hughes, Thomas P., Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983Google Scholar; Needham, Joseph, The Grand Titration: Science and Society in East and West, Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1979Google Scholar. On the comparative method see also Margaret C. Jacob, ‘Science studies after social construction: the turn toward the comparative and the global’, in Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt (eds.), Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999, pp. 95–120; and Lloyd, G.E.R., ‘The comparative history of pre-modern science: the pitfalls and the prizes’, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science (1997) 28, pp. 363–368CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a recent survey on comparative history of science see Pyenson, Lewis, ‘Comparative history of science’, History of Science (2002) 40, pp. 1–33, 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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21 Misa, Thomas J. and Schot, Johan, ‘Inventing Europe: technology and the hidden integration of Europe’, History and Technology (2005) 21, pp. 1–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar. van der Vleuten, Erik and Kaijser, Arne (eds.), Networking Europe: Transnational Infrastructures and the Shaping of Europe, 1850–2000, Sagamore Beach: Science History Publications, 2006Google Scholar; Schot, Johan, ‘Building Europe on transnational infrastructures: European infrastructures’, Journal of Transport History (2007) 28, pp. 167–171CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Transnational or ‘global’ perspectives are also in Daniel R. Headrick, Technology: A World History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009; Edgerton, David, Shock of the Old: Technology and Global History since 1900, London: Profile Books, 2006Google Scholar.

22 For an overview of the STEP program and its main results until 2008 see Gavroglu, Kostas et al. , ‘Science and technology in the European periphery: historiographical reflections’, History of Science (2008) 46, pp. 153–175CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Some noteworthy comparative studies arising from this group are, for example, Simões, Ana, Carneiro, Ana and Paula, Maria Diogo (eds.), Travels of Learning: A Geography of Science in Europe, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2002Google Scholar; and Papanelopoulou, Faidra, Nieto-Galan, Agustí and Perdiguero, Enrique, Popularizing Science and Technology in the European Periphery, 1800–2000, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2009Google Scholar. The potential of transnational history has been realized by STEP and one of the authors is coordinator for a specific group on transnational approaches. See STEP webpage, http://147.156.155.104, last accessed 23 December 2010.

23 Raj, Kapil, ‘Colonial encounters and the forging of new knowledge and national identities, 1760–1850’, Osiris (2000) 15, pp. 119–134CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, Relocating Modern Science: Circulation and the Construction of Knowledge in South Asia and Europe, 1650–1900, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. See also Stuchey, Benedikt, Science across the European Empires 1800–1950, London: OUP/German Historical Institute, 2005Google Scholar.

24 See, for instance, Christophe Bonneuil, ‘Crafting and disciplining the tropics: plant science in the French colonies’, in John Krige and Dominique Pestre (eds.), Science in the Twentieth Century, Amsterdam: Harwood, 1997, pp. 77–96; and Christophe Bonneuil, ‘Development as experiment: science and state building in late colonial and postcolonial Africa, 1930–1970’, Osiris (2000), 15, pp. 1501–1520; Palladino, Paolo and Worboys, Michael, ‘Science and imperialism’, Isis (1993) 84, pp. 84–102Google Scholar; Michael Worboys, ‘Colonial medicine’, in Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (eds.), Medicine in the Twentieth Century, Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000, pp. 67–80. And more recently Neill, Deborah, ‘Paul Ehrlich's colonial connections: scientific networks and the response to the sleeping sickness epidemic, 1900–1914’, Social History of Medicine (2009) 1, pp. 61–77Google Scholar.

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46 Simone Turchetti, ‘“In God we trust; all others we monitor”: seismology in international and intelligence Affairs’, forthcoming.

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58 Saunier, op. cit. (2), p. 126.