I would like to thank Janet Browne, Boyd Hilton, Patrick O'Brien, Simon Schaffer and Andrew Warwick for their helpful suggestions. For permission to quote from manuscript materials I am grateful to the Royal Society, the Harry Ransom Humanities Center at the University of Texas at Austin, the Royal Astronomical Society, Cambridge University Library, St John's College, Cambridge, and the British Library.

¹ Babbage, Charles, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers, 4th edn, London, 1835, 387–8.Google Scholar

² Bentham, Maria Sophia, Suggestions for the Better Management of the Civil Concerns of the Navy: Taken from the Papers of the Late Samuel Bentham, London, 1850, 49.Google Scholar

³ Sombart, Werner, Der Moderne Kapitalismus, 6th edn, Munich and Leipzig, 1924, ii, 119Google Scholar. Quoted in Studies in the History of Accounting (ed. Littleton, A. C. and Yamey, B. S.), London, 1956, 3–4.Google Scholar

⁴ Maunder, E. Walter, The Royal Observatory Greenwich: A Glance at its History and Work, London, 1900, 15.Google Scholar

⁵ Dodd, George, Days at the Factories, or The Manufacturing Industry of Great Britain Described, London, 1843, 548Google Scholar. Quoted in Berg, Maxine, The Machinery Question and the Making of Political Economy 1815–1848, Cambridge, 1980, 194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶ Turner, H. H., ‘The decade 1820–1830’, in The History of the Royal Astronomical Society (ed. Dreyer, J. L. E. and Turner, H. H.), London, 1923, 1–49, on 2Google Scholar. Those also present were: two lawyers, Daniel Moore and Charles Stokes; Olinthus Gregory, professor of mathematics at Woolwich Royal Military Academy; Captain Thomas Colby of the Royal Engineers; Rev. William Pearson; James South, a rich amateur astronomer trained in medicine; and lastly, Peter Slawinski, a professor at Vilna University in Poland and from 1825 Director of the Vilna Observatory.

⁷ Quoted in Dyer, G. P., ‘“One of the Best Men of Business”: Master of the Royal Mint’, in John Herschel 1792–1871: A Bicentennial Commemoration (ed. King-Hele, D. G.), Proceedings of a Royal Society Meeting held on 13 May 1992, London, 1992, 105–13, on 105.Google Scholar

⁸ Turner, , op. cit. (6), 35.Google Scholar

⁹ Rudwick, M. J. S., ‘The foundation of the Geological Society of London: its scheme for co-operative research and its struggle for independence’, BJHS (1963), 4, 325–55, on 344–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ Minutes of the Political Economy Club, 1821, in The Political Economy Club, London, 1921, vi, 1.Google Scholar

¹¹ Baily, to Babbage, , 11 03 1820Google Scholar, Babbage correspondence, British Library.

¹² Morus, Iwan, Schaffer, Simon and Secord, Jim, ‘Scientific London’, in London – World City 1800–1840 (ed. Fox, Celina), Recklinghausen, 1992, 129–42, on 129.Google Scholar

¹³ For this view see the official history of the Society given in Dreyer, and Turner, , op. cit. (6).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Herschel, John, ‘Address to the Society’, Memoirs of the Astronomical Society of London (1824), 1, 1–7, on 4.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Turner, , op. cit. (6), 25.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Baily, Francis, ‘On Mr. Babbage's new machine for calculating and printing mathematical and astronomical tables’, from H.Schumacher's ‘Astronomische Nachrichten’, 1823, no. 46Google Scholar, reprinted in the Philosophical Magazine (May 1824), and Babbage's Calculating Engines: A Collection of Papers by Henry Prevost Babbage (ed. Bromley, Allan G.), Los Angeles, 1982, 225–35, on 228 and 229.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Montgomery, James, The Theory and Practice of Cotton Spinning; or the Carding and Spinning Master's Assistant, Glasgow, 1833, 243Google Scholar. Quoted in Berg, , op. cit. (5), 193.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Baily, , op. cit. (16), 229–30.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Baily, to Babbage, , 8 11 1823Google Scholar, Babbage correspondence, British Library.

²⁰ Berg, , op. cit. (5), see ch. 7.Google Scholar

²¹ Miller, David Philip, ‘The Royal Society of London 1800–1835: A Study in the Cultural Politics of Scientific Organization’, Ph.D thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1981, 108–9Google Scholar. See also his ‘The revival of the physical sciences in Britain 1815–1840’, Osiris (1986), 2, 107–35Google Scholar. For the quote see Some Members in the Minority, An History of the Instances of Exclusion from the Royal Society, London, 1784, 20Google Scholar; and for Mutton's book-keeping see his A Complete Treatise on Practical Arithmetic and Bookkeeping, Both by Single and Double Entry, 14th edn, London, 1815.Google Scholar

²² Babbage, , op. cit. (1), 169.Google Scholar

²³ Rosenberg, Nathan, ‘Adam Smith and moral capital’, History of Political Economy (1990), 1, 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁴ Berg, , op. cit. (5), 160.Google Scholar

²⁵ See Hoskin, Michael, ‘Astronomers at war: South versus Sheepshanks’, Journal of the History of Astronomy (1989), 20, 175–212CrossRefGoogle Scholar and ‘More on South versus Sheepshanks’, Journal of the History of Astronomy (1991), 22, 174–9.Google Scholar

²⁶ Robinson, Thomas Romney, Proceedings of the Royal Society (1867–1868), 16, pp. xliv–xlviiGoogle Scholar, on xlvi. Quoted in Hoskin, , op. cit. (25), 183.Google Scholar

²⁷ Babbage, , op. cit. (1), 379.Google Scholar

²⁸ Baily, , op. cit. (16), 226.Google Scholar

²⁹ Price, Richard, Observations on Reversionary Payments; on Schemes for Providing Annuities for Widows, and for Persons in Old Age; on the Method of Calculating the Values of Assurances on Lives; and on the National Debt, London, 1769, 131.Google Scholar

³⁰ See Herschel, John, ‘Memoir of Francis Baily’, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1844), 6Google Scholar, reprinted in his Essays from the Edinburgh and Quarterly Review, London, 1857, 552–621Google Scholar. It was probably Baily's financial acumen that ensured the Society's financial status in its early years. Most of the compositions were invested in the Navy 5 per cents, while fees from non-resident members were invested in East India Bonds. These two sources of income were kept separate from the annual payments. See ‘Report of the Council of the Society to the First General Meeting’, 9 02 1821Google Scholar, Memoirs of the Astronomical Society (1824), 1, 21–32, on 26.Google Scholar

³¹ Horton-Smith, L. G. H., ‘Francis Baily: The Astronomer 1774–1844’, The Newburian, Newbury, 1937Google Scholar, reprinted as a short pamphlet in 1938, 4.

³² Hilton, Boyd, Corn, Cash, Commerce: The Economic Policies of the Tory Governments, 1815–1830, Oxford, 1977Google Scholar; Brewer, John, ‘Commercialisation and politics’, in The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialisation of Eighteenth-Century England (ed. McKendrick, N., Brewer, J. and Plumb, J. H.), London, 1982Google Scholar; and Perkin, Harold, The Origins of Modern Society, 1780–1880, London, 1969.Google Scholar

³³ Baily, Francis, Tables for the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases, for Terms of years Certain and for Lives, with Rules for Determining the Value of the Reversion of Estates after any such Leases; and for the Solution of other Useful Problems; Adapted to General use, London, 1802, 8 and 37.Google Scholar

³⁴ Hacking, Ian, The Taming of Chance, Cambridge, 1990, 49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁵ Baily, Francis, The Doctrine of Interest and Annuities Analytically Investigated and Explained Together with Several Useful Tables Connected with the Subject, London, 1808, pp. v–vi.Google Scholar

³⁶ Baily, , op. cit. (35), 105.Google Scholar

³⁷ Baily, , op. cit. (35)Google Scholar. The Sinking Fund was originally set up in the early eighteenth century to pay off the national debt. However, most governments did not use it for this purpose and in practice it had been used as a reserve fund in case of sudden need, i.e. war. It was abandoned in 1828.

³⁸ Baily, , op. cit. (35), 6 and 106.Google Scholar

³⁹ Milgate, Murray and Stimson, Shannon C., Ricardian Politics, Princeton, 1991, 75.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Baily, , op. cit. (35), 2nd edn, 1810, p. iGoogle Scholar. This edition is substantially different in detail and greatly extended.

⁴¹ Baily, , op. cit. (35), p. v.Google Scholar

⁴² Baily, , op. cit. (35), p. x.Google Scholar

⁴³ Herschel, , op. cit. (30), 6Google Scholar; Charles Babbage, ‘On the influence of signs in mathematical reasoning’, a paper read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society on 16 December 1821 and printed in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (1827), 2, 325–77, on 373.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Baily, Francis, An Account of the Several Life Assurance Companies Established in London: Containing a View of their Respective Merits and Advantages, London, 1810, 12Google Scholar. Richard Price constructed the Northampton tables for this Society.

⁴⁵ ‘Regulations of the Society’, Memoirs of the Astronomical Society (1824), 1, 9–12.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Herschel, , op. cit. (30), 8.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Sir George Colebrooke was head of the firm ‘Colebrooke, Lesingham and Binns’, Bankers of Threadneedle Street; the latter two were only nominal partners. Sir George was the son of James Colebrooke, a banker who had made a large fortune in the South Sea Bubble years. Sir George played an important part in the dealings and politics of the East India Company and was made their Chairman in 1769. His activities in the company were not thought by his enemies to be independent of his interests as a stockbroker. See Sutherland, Lucy, Politics and Finance in the Eighteenth Century (ed. Newman, Aubrey), London, 1984, 445–71.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Colebrooke, T. E., The Life of H. T. Colebrooke, 3 vols., London, 1873, i, 109.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Colebrooke, Henry, Remarks on the Present State of the Husbandry and Commerce of Bengal, Calcutta, 1795.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Colebrooke, H., op. cit. (49), 174.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Colebrooke, H., op. cit. (49), 94.Google Scholar

⁵² Colebrooke, Henry to Colebrooke, George, 28 07 1788Google Scholar. Quoted in Colebrooke, T. E., op. cit. (48), 31.Google Scholar

⁵³ Colebrooke, T. E., op. cit. (48), 271–2.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Colebrooke, T. E., op. cit. (48), 296.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Colebrooke, T. E., op. cit. (48), 297.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ See ‘Minutes of the Council of the Astronomical Society’, 9 03 1821Google Scholar, Royal Astronomical Society archives.

⁵⁷ Gompertz won the annual prize, without exception, between 1812 and 1822 for the best solutions to prize questions contained in the Gentlemen's Mathematical Companion.

⁵⁸ Adler, Marcus N., ‘Memoir of the late Benjamin Gompertz’, paper read before the Institute of Actuaries and of the Statistical Society, 18 12, 1865Google Scholar. Printed in The Assurance Magazine and the Institute of Actuaries (1867), 13, 1–20, on 1–2.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Adler, , op. cit. (58), 5.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Adler, , op. cit. (58), 16.Google Scholar

⁶¹ DNB, entry for Joshua Milne.

⁶² The Works of Charles Babbage (ed. Campbell-Kelly, Martin), London, 1989, iv, 14–15.Google Scholar

⁶³ Baily, , op. cit. (35), 60.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Gompertz's first paper to the Royal Society in 1806 was on the application of the method of differences to a species of series whose sums are obtained through impossible quantities. The paper was communicated through the then Astronomer Royal, Dr Maskelyne. See Adler, , op. cit. (58), 6Google Scholar. For Frend's rejection of negative and imaginary quantities see his Principles of Algebra, London, 1796.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Hacking, , op. cit. (34), 49.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Adler, , op. cit. (58), 16.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Babbage, , A Comparative View of the Various Institutions for the Assurance of Lives, London, 1826, 13.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Adler, , op. cit. (58), 12–13.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ De Morgan, Augustus, Athenaeum, 22 07 1865Google Scholar. Quoted in Adler, , op. cit. (58), 13.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Brown, Samuel, ‘President of the Institute of Actuaries, Extracts from the Opening Address of the President of Section F [Economics, Science and Statistics] of the BAAS, at the 38th Meeting at Norwich, August 1868’, The Assurance Magazine and the Institute of Actuaries (1870), 15, 19.Google Scholar

⁷¹ DNB, entry for Patrick Kelly.

⁷² Miller, ‘Royal Society’, op. cit. (21), 112.Google Scholar

⁷³ Kelly, Patrick, The Universal Cambist, and Commercial Instruction; Being a General Treatise on Exchange, Including the Monies, Coins, Weights, and Measures, of all Trading Nations and Colonies, with an Account of Their Books and Paper Currencies, 2 vols., London, 1811, i, p. iGoogle Scholar. For Kelly's book-keeping see his The Elements of Book-Keeping both by Single and Double Entry, London, 1801.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Kelly, , Universal Cambist, op. cit. (73), p. ii.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Kelly, , Universal Cambist, op. cit. (73), p. xxi.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Kelly, , Universal Cambist, op. cit. (73), p. xxivGoogle Scholar. Paper credit included Bank notes, Exchequer, Navy and Ordinance Bills, Bonds, Mortgages, Transfers of Stock, Bills of Exchange and all other forms of paper securities.

⁷⁷ Clerke, Agnes M., A Popular History of Astronomy During the Nineteenth Century, London, 4th edn, 1908, 7.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Schaffer, Simon, ‘Herschel in bedlam: natural history and stellar astronomy’, BJHS (1980), 13, 211–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar and ‘Uranus and the establishment of Herschel's astronomy’, Journal for the History of Astronomy (1981), 12, 11–26Google Scholar; Williams, M. E., ‘Was there such a thing as stellar astronomy in the eighteenth century?’, History of Science (1983), 21, 369–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷⁹ Dewhirst, David W., ‘Meridian astronomy in the private and university observatories of the United Kingdom: rise and fall’, Vistas in Astronomy (1985), 28, 147–58, on 147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸⁰ Herschel, John, A Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (1830), Chicago, 1987, 276.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Herschel, , op. cit. (80), 280.Google Scholar

⁸² Desmond, Adrian, The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine and Reform in Radical London, Chicago, 1989Google Scholar. For astronomy see Schaffer, Simon, ‘The nebular hypothesis and the science of progress’, in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays in Honour of John C. Greene (ed. Moore, J. R.), Cambridge, 1989, 131–64.Google Scholar

⁸³ Hoppit, Julian, Risk and Failure in English Business 1700–1800, Cambridge, 1987, 166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸⁴ Hilton, Boyd, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought 1785–1865, Oxford, 1988, 123 and 140.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ For an analysis of the prevalent balanced and atemporal view of the world in the early nineteenth century see Hilton, , op. cit. (84)Google Scholar, especially ch. 8, and M. Norton Wise with the collaboration of Smith, Crosbie, ‘Work and waste: political economy and natural philosophy in nineteenth century Britain (I)’, History of Science (1989), 27, 262–301Google Scholar, ‘Work and waste (II)’, History of Science (1989), 27, 391–449Google Scholar, and ‘Work and waste (III)’, History of Science (1990), 28, 221–56Google Scholar. The change from a static to a dynamical view roughly occurs during the 1830s.

⁸⁶ Hoppit, , op. cit. (83), 172 and 39Google Scholar. See also Yamey, B. S., ‘Scientific bookkeeping and the rise of capitalism’, Economic History Review (1949), 2nd series, 1, 99–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸⁷ Hoppit, , op. cit. (83).Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Scrope, George Poulett, On Credit Currency and its Superiority to Coin, London, 1830, 74.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Ricardo, David, Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, 3rd edn, London, 1821Google Scholar. Everyman reprint, 1926, 50.

⁹⁰ Hilton, , op. cit. (32), 179.Google Scholar

⁹¹ Colebrooke, H., op. cit. (49), 279.Google Scholar

⁹² David Ricardo quoted by his fellow club member Mallet, J. L., op. cit. (10), p. x.Google Scholar

⁹³ Thompson, E. P., ‘Time-discipline, and industrial capitalism’, Past and Present (12 1967), 56–97.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Herschel, John, ‘Elements of Greatness’Google Scholar, Herschel MS, n.d. Harry Ransom Humanities Research Centre, University of Texas at Austin.

⁹⁵ Herschel, , op. cit. (80), 27.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Quoted in Schaffer, , op. cit. (82), 135.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Wise, with Smith, , op. cit. (85), I, 277.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Taylor, William Cooke, Factories and the Factory System, London, 1844, p. iii.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Cariyle, Thomas, ‘Signs of the times’, Edinburgh Review (06 1829)Google Scholar, reprinted in A Cariyle Reader: Selections from the Writings of Thomas Cariyle (ed. Tennyson, G. B.), Cambridge, 1984, 31–54, on 46.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Farr, William, ‘On the construction of Life Tables, illustrated by a new Life Table of the healthy districts of England’, The Assurance Magazine and the Institute of Actuaries (1861), 9, 121–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰¹ ‘Minutes of the Council of the Astronomical Society’, 9 03 1821Google Scholar, Royal Astronomical Society archives.

¹⁰² Brewer, John, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688–1783, London, 1989, 67–9.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Brewer, , op. cit. (102), 94 and 92.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Brewer, , op. cit. (102), 84.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Hacking, , op. cit. (34).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ Meadows, A. J., Greenwich Observatory: Recent History (1836–1975), London, 1975, ii, 3.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ In 1857 Airy wrote in his Report to the Board of Visitors: ‘The meridional system is sacredly preserved.’ Quoted in Meadows, , op. cit. (106), 4.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Schaffer, Simon, ‘Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation’, Science in Context (1988), 2, 115–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Douglas, Mary, How Institutions Think, Syracuse, 1986, 1.Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ Miller, , op. cit. (21).Google Scholar

¹¹¹ Rankin, Robert, A Familiar Treatise on Life Assurances and Annuities, London, 1830, 72.Google Scholar

¹¹² Senior, Nassau William, An Outline of the Science of Political Economy, London, 1836, 135.Google Scholar

¹¹³ Senior, , op. cit. (112), 134.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Wise, with Smith, , op. cit. (85), II, 414.Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Herschel, , op. cit. (30), 41.Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Herschel, , op. cit. (30), 31Google Scholar; see also Pannekoek, A., A History of Astronomy, London, 1961, 321–38.Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ Herschel, John, ‘Address to the Astronomical Society of London’, 1829, in his Essays, op. cit. (30), 510.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Meadows, , op. cit. (106), 30.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Quoted in Meadows, , op. cit. (106), 29.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ Berg, , op. cit. (5), 46.Google Scholar

¹²¹ Wise, with Smith, , op. cit. (85), I, 276.Google Scholar

¹²² Portlock, Colonel J. E., Memoir of the Life of Major General Colby, London, 1869, 8.Google Scholar

¹²³ Quoted in Miller, , op. cit. (21), 321.Google Scholar

¹²⁴ Turner, , op. cit. (6), 29.Google Scholar

¹²⁵ Francis Baily, Notes and Appendix to Cagnoli, A., Memoir on a New and Certain Method of Ascertaining the Figure of the Earth, By Means of Occultations of the Fixed Stars, London, 1819, 31.Google Scholar

¹²⁶ Baily, , op. cit. (125), 33–4.Google Scholar

¹²⁷ Baily, Francis, Remarks on the Present Defective State of the Nautical Almanac, London, 1822, 18.Google Scholar

¹²⁸ Baily, , op. cit. (127), 18.Google Scholar

¹²⁹ Herschel, John, On the Board of Longitude, n.d. (1825?), Herschel MS, St John's College, Cambridge, my italics.Google Scholar

¹³⁰ Baily, , op. cit. (127), 39–43.Google Scholar

¹³¹ Herschel, John and Babbage, Charles, Memoirs of the Analytical Society, 1813, original manuscript, 12, Herschel MS, St John's College, Cambridge.Google Scholar

¹³² Charles Babbage, ‘On Transcendents’, Babbage MS, Cambridge University Library, probably 1812.

¹³³ Baily, , op. cit. (16), 226.Google Scholar

¹³⁴ This problem was international, tables were not reduced through standardized techniques and tools. See, for example, ‘On the Differences of Declination of Certain Stars, according to Different Astronomers; and on Refraction, &c. Extracted from a Letter of M. J. J. Littrow, Director of the Imperial Observatory at Vienna, to the Foreign Secretary’ – dated Vienna, 3 January 1823, Memoirs of the Astronomical Society (1824), 1, 339–48.Google Scholar

¹³⁵ Baily, , op. cit. (127), 49.Google Scholar

¹³⁶ South, James, ‘An inquiry how far it would be advisable that the daily corrections in right ascension and north polar distance of the forty-six zero stars should be computed annually at the public expense’, Annals of Philosophy (1824)Google Scholar, January and February, printed as a separate pamphlet, London, 1824, 9.

¹³⁷ Baily, , op. cit. (127), 60Google Scholar. See also Herschel, , op. cit. (129).Google Scholar

¹³⁸ Herschel, , op. cit. (30), 19 (my italics).Google Scholar

¹³⁹ Miller, , op. cit. (21), 324.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁰ Herschel, John to Gurney, Hudson, MP, 25 06 1830Google Scholar, quoted from Schweber, S. S., Aspects of the Life of John Herschel, New York, 1981.Google Scholar

¹⁴¹ Herschel, John to SirWatson, William, 12 02 1819Google Scholar, Herschel correspondence, Royal Society.

¹⁴² Herschel, to Gurney, , op. cit. (140).Google Scholar

¹⁴³ Herschel, , op. cit. (129).Google Scholar

¹⁴⁴ Dickens, Charles, Hard Times (1850), Harmondsworth, 1985, 149–50.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁵ Warwick, Andrew, ‘The Laboratory of Theory or What's Exact about the Exact Sciences?’, paper presented in Oldenburg, 08 1992.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁶ Latour, Bruno, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society, Cambridge, Mass., 1987, ch. 6.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁷ Quoted in Rosenberg, , op. cit. (23), 11.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁸ Smith, Adam, ‘Essay on the history of astronomy’, in The Essays of Adam Smith: Philosophical and Literary (ed. Joseph Black and James Hutton), n.d., 325–85, on 352.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁹ Bentham, Samuel, Naval Essays, or Essays on the Management of Public Concerns as Exemplified in the Naval Department, Considered as a Branch of the Business of Warfare, London, 1828, 9.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁰ Bentham, , op. cit. (149), 36.Google Scholar

¹⁵¹ Bentham, Maria Sophia, The Life of Brigadier-General Sir Samuel Bentham, London, 1862, 98Google Scholar; Cooper, Carolyn C., ‘The Portsmouth system of manufacture’, Technology and Culture (1984), 2, 182–226, on 192–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁵² Bentham, M. S., op. cit. (151), 83.Google Scholar

¹⁵³ Morriss, Roger, The Royal Dockyards During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Leicester, 1983, especially ch. 7.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁴ Bentham, M. S., op. cit. (151), 60.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁵ Bentham, Jeremy, Panopticon; or, The Inspection House: Containing the Idea of a new Principle of Construction Applicable to any sort of Establishment …in a Series of Letters Written in the Year 1787, from Crecheff in White Russia, to a Friend in England, London, 1791, 23 and 107.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁶ Bowring, John, The Works of Jeremy Bentham, Edinburgh, 1843, x, 226Google Scholar, quoted in Cooper, , op. cit. (151), 193.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁷ Bentham, J., op. cit. (155), 45.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁸ Herschel MS, n.d., Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, University of Texas at Austin.

¹⁵⁹ Berg, , op. cit. (5), 193.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁰ See, for example, Baily, , op. cit. (44)Google Scholar, Babbage, , op. cit. (67)Google Scholar, Rankin, , op. cit. (111)Google Scholar, Scrope, , op. cit. (88)Google Scholar, and Bentham, Samuel, Financial Reform Scrutinized in a Letter to Sir Henry Parnell, Bart MP, London, 1830.Google Scholar

¹⁶¹ Berg, Maxine and Hudson, Pat, ‘Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution’, Economic History Review (1992), 45, 24–50, on 42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁶² Herschel, John, ‘Address to the Astronomical Society’, 11 04 1827, in his Essays, op. cit. (30), 466–88, on 470.Google Scholar

¹⁶³ Quoted in Meadows, , op. cit. (106), 31.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁴ Scrope, , op. cit. (88), 43–4Google Scholar; Milne, Joshua, Treatise on the Valuation of Annuities and Assurances on the Construction of Mortality, London, 1815, pp. 1 and xliiGoogle Scholar; A Gentleman of the Exchange, Stock-Exchange Laid Open, London, 1814, 26–7.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁵ Michael Foucault uses panopticism as the paradigmatic characteristic of a prevalent disciplinary technology. See his, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, London, 1977.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁶ Bentham, Jeremy, Panopticon: Postscript; Part II: Containing a Plan of Management for a Panopticon Penitentiary House, London, 1791, 40.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁷ Schaffer, , op. cit. (108), 118.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁸ Babbage, , op. cit. (1), 367.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁹ Babbage, , op. cit. (1), 169.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁰ Cooper, , op. cit. (151), 193.Google Scholar

¹⁷¹ Babbage, , op. cit. (1), 201.Google Scholar

¹⁷² Bessel quoted in Littrow, , op. cit. (134), 343.Google Scholar

¹⁷³ Quoted in Pannekoek, , op. cit. (116), 325.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁴ Littrow, , op. cit. (134), 342.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁵ Gompertz, Benjamin, ‘On the theory of astronomical instruments, Part 1’, Memoirs of the Astronomical Society (1824), 1, 349–55, on 349.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁶ Gompertz, , op. cit. (175).Google Scholar

¹⁷⁷ Baily, , op. cit. (16), 229.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁸ See Bennett, Jim, ‘Instrument makers and the “Decline of Science in England”: the effects of institutional change on the elite makers of the early nineteenth century’, in Nineteenth-Century Scientific Instruments and Their Makers (ed. de Clerq, P. R.), Amsterdam, 1985, 13–29.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁹ Berg, , op. cit. (5), 33.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁰ Herschel, John, ‘Address to the Astronomical Society’, 11 04 1827, in Essays op. cit. (30), 466–88, on 483–4.Google Scholar

¹⁸¹ Herschel, John, ‘Address to the B.A.A.S. at Cambridge’, 19 06 1845, in Essays op. cit. (30), 655.Google Scholar

¹⁸² Babbage, , op. cit. (1), 379.Google Scholar

¹⁸³ Baily, , op. cit. (16), 225.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁴ Quoted in Berg, , op. cit. (5), 128.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁵ Colebrooke, Henry, ‘On presenting the honorary medals of the Society’, Memoirs of the Astronomical Society (1824), 1, 509–14, on 509.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁶ Miller, , ‘Royal Society’, op. cit. (21), 217.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁷ Review of ‘Letters addressed to H. R. H. the Grand Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, on the theory of probabilities as applied to the moral and political sciences, by M. A. Quetelet, Astronomer Royal of Belgium, translated by Olinthus Gregory Downes, London, 1849’, The Assurance Magazine and the Institute of Actuaries (1851), 1, 362.Google Scholar