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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 February 2015
Apostasy among the English Catholic gentry in the late eighteenth century was not uncommon. In this period contemporary Catholic observers were concerned by what they perceived to be a great qualitative decrease of English Catholic gentry and they regarded apostasy as ‘a major and catastrophic cause of the decline’. Conformity to the established religion was a social virtue and was rewarded with social advantages; it was part and parcel of one's rise in the social scale and so was a great temptation for gentlemen outside the Anglican fold who were desirous of a service or parliamentary career. In almost every county in England many heads of old English Catholic families conformed. Indeed, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, of the twenty-four Catholic gentry families that existed in the Riding in. 1706 only twelve remained by 1780. Between the years 1754–1790 seven members of the House of Commons had renounced Roman Catholicism in order to pursue political careers and according to the contemporary Catholic priest Joseph Berington, by 1780 there were but 177 landed Catholic families in England ten of which had either died out or recently abjured their faith. Just a few conversions could have devastating consequences for Catholic communities. As David Butler points out, often ‘Catholic missions were over-dependent on the Catholic aristocracy and gentry for the continuance of Catholic worship’ and for Butler, in eighteenth-century London alone, if ‘just eight prominent families had apostatised … the Catholic missions would have lost about half of their numbers’.
1 Mathew, David, Catholicism in England: The Portrait of a Minority, its Culture and Tradition (London, 1955), p. 149.Google Scholar
2 Aveling, Hugh, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding of Yorkshire 1558–1790’, Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, vol. 10, no. 6 (1963), p. 259;Google Scholar Aveling, J. C. H., The Handle and the Axe: Catholic Recusants in England from Reformation to Emancipation (London, 1976), p. 262.Google Scholar One of the best contemporary examples of this position is presented in Berington, Joseph, The State and Behaviour of English Catholics from the Reformation to the Year 1780 With a View of their Present Number, Wealth, Character &c. (London, 1780).Google Scholar
3 Namier, Lewis and Brooke, John, The House of Commons 1754–1790, 3 vols. (London, 1964) vol. 1, pp. 113–115;Google Scholar Gooch, Leo, ‘The Religion for a Gentleman: The Northern Catholic Gentry in the Eighteenth Century’, Recusant History, vol. 23 (1996), p. 549.Google Scholar
4 Steel, D. J. and Samuel, Edgar R., National Index of Parish Registers, Volume 3: Sources for Roman Catholic and Jewish Genealogy and Family History (London, 1974), p. 830.Google Scholar
5 Namier and Brooke, loc. cit., vol. 1, p. 117; Berington, loc. cit., pp. 117, 120. The seven Members of Parliament, excluding Edward Gibbon, who had abjured Roman Catholicism and sat in Parliament between the years 1754–1790 were: Charles Dillon (apostatised 1767), Thomas Gascoigne (1780), Charles Howard (1780), Kenneth Mackenzie (1769), Charles William Molyneux (1769), Robert Nugent (c. 1731), and John Edward Swinburne (c. 1786). There is some evidence that suggests that feelings of circumscription extended to the Catholic clergy also, some of whom converted to the Anglican faith feeling that their ambitions could be better fulfilled in the Established Church. See Duffy, Eamon, “Over the Waif: Converts from Popery in Eighteenth-Century England’, The Downside Review, vol. 94 (1976), p. 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6 Butler, David, ‘The Catholic London District in the Eighteenth Century’, Recusant History, vol. 21, no. 1 (2006), p. 266.Google Scholar
7 Eamon Duffy's essay, “Over the Wall’: Converts from Popery in Eighteenth-Century England’, which focuses on ecclesiastical conversions, is the only full-length article written about apostasy in the eighteenth century, though Womersley, David, ‘Gibbon's Apostasy’, British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, vol. 11 (1988), pp. 51–70 CrossRefGoogle Scholar might also be tentatively included here. The subject of apostasy is also touched upon in several books, however, due to the broad range of each work, the subject is not treated in any great depth. For some examples see Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, pp. 259–263; Aveling, Hugh, Northern Catholics: The Catholic Recusants of the North Riding of Yorkshire 1558–1790 (London, 1966), pp. 367, 372–373, 396–399;Google Scholar Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, pp. 247, 254, 258–259, 262–263; Bossy, John, The English Catholic Community 1570–1850 (London, 1975), pp. 150–152, 324–326;Google Scholar Mathew, loc. cit., pp. 148–149. O'Bryne, Eileen, The Convert Rolls (Dublin, 1981)Google Scholar gives a short introduction to, and comprehensive list of, Catholic converts in eighteenth-century Ireland.
8 Duffy, loc. cit., p. 25.
9 Ibidem, p. 1; Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 264.
10 Most sources, secondary and primary, point to the 4 June 1780 as the most likely date. It is the date given by Stanhope, Philip, Mahon, Lord in his History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles 1713–1783, 7 vols. (London, 1858), vol. 7, p. 75.Google Scholar Primary sources also suggest this date. The London Chronicle published on Tuesday the 6 June (p. 6) writes that the apostasy took place ‘last Sunday’ which would have been Sunday the 4 June. The York Chronicle and General Advertiser dated 16 June 1780 (p. 2) reported it happened ‘on Sunday se'ennight’ as does the Leeds Mercury dated 13 June (p. 3). A letter that mentions the apostasy written in London and dated the 3 June 1780 causes some confusion, however it is possible that the correspondent knew of the apostasy before it was to take place. See ‘Mrs. Lloyd Kenyon to ----------’ in Historical Manuscripts Commission. Fourteenth Report, Appendix, Part IV. The Manuscripts of Lord Kenyon (London, 1894), p. 509.
11 York Chronicle and General Advertiser, 16 Jun. 1780, p. 2.
12 Bossy, loc. cit., pp. 150–151.
13 Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, pp. 151, 184.
14 York Courant, 13 Jun. 1780, p. 2; York Chronicle and General Advertiser, 16 Jun. 1780, p. 2; Leeds Intelligencer, 20 Jun. 1780, p. 2; Leeds Mercury, 13 Jun. 1780, p. 3.
15 Newcastle Courant, 10 Jun. 1780, pp. 2, 4; Sadly very few copies of the Cumberland Pacquet and Ware's Whitehaven Advertiser exist for the month of June 1780. Evidence would suggest, however, that the paper did report the apostasy as the Earl of Surrey is recorded to have written to the editor denying the reports which prompted the paper to publish a contraction. See Hughes, Edward, North Country Life in the Eighteenth Century, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1965), vol. 2, p. 258,Google Scholar footnote 1; Cumberland Pacquet and Ware's Whitehaven Advertiser, 13 Jun. 1780.
16 Leeds Mercury, 13 Jun. 1780, p. 1.
17 Craftsman; Or, Say's’ Weekly Journal, 17 Jun. 1780, p. 1; Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser, 10 Jun. 1780, p. 2; General Evening Post, 6 Jun. 1780, p. 1; London Chronicle, 6 Jun. 1780, p. 6; London Courant and Westminster Chronicle, 7 Jun. 1780; St. James's Chronicle; Or British Evening Post, 6 Jun. 1780, p. 1.
18 Annual Register, or a View of the History, Politics, and Literature, for the Year 1780 (London, 1781), p. 215;Google Scholar Stanhope, loc. cit., vol. 7, p. 75; Erskine, May, Constitutional History of England Since the Accession of George the Third 1760–1860, 2 vols. (London, 1878), vol. 2, p. 322,Google Scholar footnote 1.
19 Stanhope, loc. cit., vol. 7, p. 75.
20 The only newspaper operating in the area at this time was the Cumberland Pacquet and Ware's Whitehaven Advertiser. Sadly, as mentioned above, very few copies of this paper exist for the month of June 1780. It is fairly certain, however, that ‘the Whitehaven paper’ Surrey alludes to was this one. The paper certainly denied the apostasy: see Cumberland Pacquet and Ware's Whitehaven Advertiser, 13 Jun. 1780, p. 3. In consequence to Surrey's demands it would appear the paper wrote on another occasion: The paragraph inserted in our Last, concerning the Rt. Hon. The Earl of Surrey, having been the subject of much dispute, we think it necessary to repeat the assertion therein made, as well for the satisfaction of those who might think we had been deceived by some hear-say account, as for the purpose of silencing a certain set of people who affect to discredit all newspaper information, especially where there is any little private pique against the publisher. The paragraphs still continued in the London papers of the Earl's recanting, &c. are false, and a gross imposition on the public. It is said, that Sir Thomas Gascoine [sic] is in the same predicament, but this we do not pretend to say from authority’ cited in Hughes, loc. cit., vol. 2, p. 258, footnote 1.
21 See Namier and Brooke, loc. cit., vol. 2, p. 215; Hughes, loc. cit., vol. 2, pp. 238–260.
22 Nottingham University Library, Department of Manuscripts and Special Collections, Portland manuscripts, PwF 5.501. Charles Howard, Earl of Surrey, to the Duke of Portland, 16 Jul. 1780.
23 Newcastle Courant, 10 Jun. 1780, p. 4; York Chronicle and General Advertiser, 16 Jun. 1780, p. 2; Leeds Intelligencer, 20 Jun. 1780, p. 2.
24 Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 262.
25 HMC. Fourteenth Report, Appendix, Part IV. The Manuscripts of Lord Kenyon, p. 509.
26 Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 258.
27 Berington, loc. cit., p. 120.
28 Arundel Castle Archive, Howard Letters 1760–1816, vol. 1, Letters Addressed to the 10th and 11th Dukes of Norfolk. Joseph Berington to Charles Howard, Earl of Surrey, 18 Mar. 1781.
29 Neil, L. York, ‘Hotham, Beaumont, Second Baron Hotham (1737–1814)’ in ODNB, ed. by Mathew, H. C. G. and Harrison, Brian (Oxford, 2004).Google Scholar
30 Ian, R. Christie, The End of North's Ministry 1780–1782 (London, 1958), p. 108.Google Scholar
31 Portland Mss, PwF 9.138. The Marquis of Rockingham to the Duke of Portland, 28 Jul. 1780.
32 O'Gorman, Frank, The Rise of Party in England: The Rockingham Whigs 1760–1782 (London, 1975), p. 428.Google Scholar
33 Namier and Brooke, loc. cit., p. 644. The extensive correspondence between John Christian and the Duke of Portland, who initially supported Christian as a candidate for Carlisle but later withdrew to make way for the Earl of Surrey as an independent candidate who would oppose Sir James Lowther without directly involving Portland, are explained and given in full in Hughes, loc. cit., vol. 2, pp. 238–260.
34 Portland Mss, PwF 5.501. Charles Howard, Earl of Surrey, to the Duke of Portland, 16 Jul. 1780.
35 Namier and Brooke, loc. cit., vol. 2, p. 215, vol. 3, pp. 56–60.
36 Haydon, Colin, Anti-Catholicism in Eighteenth-Century England 1714–80: A Political Study (Manchester, 1993), pp. 164, 169;Google Scholar Colley, Linda, Britons: Forging a Nation 1707–1837 (London, 1992), p. 23.Google Scholar
37 Linker, R. W., ‘English Catholicism in the Eighteenth Century: An Interpretation’, Church History, vol. 35, no. 3 (1966), p. 301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38 Ibidem.
39 British and Irish Public Characters of 1798 (Dublin, 1799), p. 300;Google Scholar see also Lonsdale, Henry, The Worthies of Cumberland: The Howards (London, 1872), p. 64.Google Scholar
40 Wyvill, Christopher, Political Papers, 6 vols. (York, 1794–1802), vol. 2, pp. 41, 235.Google Scholar
41 Sheffield Archives, Went worth Woodhouse Muniments, Fitzwilliam manuscripts, WWM/F/34/19. Rev. Henry Zouch to the Earl Fitzwilliam, 18 Dec. 1783.
42 Ibidem; Shef. Arch., Wentworth Woodhouse Muniments, election papers, WWM/E/11. Minute Book of the Committee at Bluitts Tavern, 1784.
43 Thorne, R. G., The House of Commons 1790–1820, 5 vols. (London, 1986), vol. 4, p. 8;Google Scholar Namier and Brooke, loc. cit., vol. 3, pp. 388–389.
44 Charles Howard was Lord Lieutenant between 1782–1794. See Mark Ormond, W., ed., The Lord Lieutenants and High Sheriffs of Yorkshire 1066–2000 (Barnsley, 2000), p. 30;Google Scholar Thorne, loc. cit., vol. 4, p. 8.
45 Stirling, A. M. W., Annals of a Yorkshire House: From the Papers of a Macaroni and His Kindred, 2 vols. (London, 1911), vol. 2, pp. 106–107.Google Scholar
46 Ibidem, vol. 2, p. 106.
47 Arun. Cas. Arch., Howard Letters and Papers 1636–1822, vol. 2, Various Letters and Documents. Explanatory note to the dismissal of Charles Duke of Norfolk from the Lieutenancy of the West Riding of the County of York by Henry Howard, undated; Wraxall, N. W., Posthumous Memoirs of His Own Time, 3 vols. (London, 1836), vol. 1, pp. 34–35.Google Scholar
48 Howard Letters and Papers 1636–1822, vol. 2. Sir Thomas Gascoigne to Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, with a copy of his letter of resignation, 3 Feb. 1798.
49 Howard Letters 1760–1816, vol. 1. Sir Thomas Gascoigne to Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, 20 Jun. 1798.
50 Frank, O'Gorman, The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (London, 1997), pp. 233–276.Google Scholar
51 Duffy, Michael, ‘Contested Empire 1756–1815’, in Short Oxford History of the British Isles: The Eighteenth Century, ed. by Langford, Paul (Oxford, 2002), pp. 213–242.Google Scholar
52 In a letter to the Earl of Surrey Gascoigne described how ‘… ill as I might stand in the Eye of Government’. See Howard Letters 1760–1816, vol. 1. Sir Thomas Gascoigne to Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, 20 Jun. 1798.
53 Star, 27 Feb. 1798, p. 3.
54 Turner, Katherine, ‘Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel William’, ODNB; Wraxall, loc. cit., Vol. 1, p. 32.Google Scholar
55 Mitchell, Rosemary, ‘Best, Henry Digby (1768–1836)’, ODNB; Digby, Henry Best, Personal and Literary Memorials (London, 1829), pp. 80–81.Google Scholar
56 Wraxall, loc. cit., vol. 1, p. 32.
57 Namier and Brooke, loc. cit., vol. 3, pp. 218–222.
58 A New Song, election handbill (York, 1784).
59 Namier and Brooke, loc. cit., vol. 2, p. 645.
60 Dialogue Between Two Westminster Electors, election handbill (London, 1784).
61 York City Archives Department, William Gray Election Papers, M90/57. Suggestions made by Mr. Tooker on the eve of the poll, 6 Apr. 1784. Indeed, even Gascoigne's own side expected Gascoigne would attempt to bring in Catholic freeholders to poll. One agent wrote in to the committee asking ‘Pray, will the Roman Catholicks be allowed to vote’? See Election papers, WWM/E/23. Vincent Eyre to Sir Thomas Gascoigne, 4 Apr. 1784.
62 Robinson, John Martin, The Dukes of Norfolk: A Quincentennial History (Oxford, 1982), p. 171.Google Scholar
63 Fitzwilliam Mss, WWM/F/34/127. Sir Thomas Dundas to the Earl Fitzwilliam, undated, 1784.
64 Thorne, loc. cit., vol. 3, p. 67, vol. 1, p. 115.
65 Ibidem, vol. 2, p. 441.
66 Northamptonshire Record Office, Fitzwilliam manuscripts, F(M)C 31.7.1788. Sir Charles Anderson Pelham to the Earl Fitzwilliam, 31 Jul. 1788.
67 Fitzwilliam Mss (Northhants), F(M)C 31.3.1789. Sir Charles Anderson Pelham to the Earl Fitzwilliam, 31 Mar. 1789.
68 Thorne, loc. cit., vol. 1, pp. 110–141, vol. 2, p. 441.
69 Haydon, loc. cit., pp. 164–203.
70 See Namier and Brooke, loc. cit., vol. 2, pp. 644–645.
71 Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 262.
72 Robinson, loc. cit., p. 174; British and Irish Public Characters of 1798, p. 302.
73 Thomas Marsh replaced Robert Steare at Parlington following Steare's death in January 1780. From the mission register it is clear that baptisms were still being performed at Parlington in December 1780. See Leeds Diocesan Archives, Register of baptisms, Parlington, 1757–1799, RC21/1/1; Allanson, Athanasius, Biography of the English Benedictines (Ampleforth, 1999), pp. 208, 250.Google Scholar For references to the chapel at Aberford see: Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 264; Stubbs, Frances, ‘Catholic Worship in Barwick’, The Barwicker: Journal of Barwick-in-Elmet Historical Society, vol. 52 (1999), p. 70;Google Scholar Friedman, Terry, Church Architecture in Leeds 1700–1799 (Leeds, 1997), p. 164 Google Scholar n. 83; Clifton Diocesan Archive, Letter book, vol. 1772–1788 no. 79, Rowland Lacon to Gregory Sharrock, 2 Dec. 1787. See also Chappell, D. M., ‘Catholic Churches Diocese of Leeds, 1793–1916’ (unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Sheffield Univ. 1972), pp. 80, 92–93, 304,Google Scholar though he fails to acknowledge Gascoigne's contribution.
74 Archives Départementales du Nord, Lille, Abbé Walker Manuscripts, 18H 30. Thomas Bolas to Abbé Walker, 24 Aug. 1780; Walker Mss, 18H 46. Rowland Lacon to Abbé Walker, 4 Feb. 1787; Walker Mss, 18H 46. Rowland Lacon to Abbé Walker, 16 Oct. 1791.
75 Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, p. 263. Sadly Aveling does not reference these figures for further verification. There is corroborating evidence, however, that in 1790 the congregation was ‘about 200 &c. near to Sir Thomas Gascoigne's’. See Walker Mss, 18H 46. Rowland Lacon to Abbé Walker, 20 Apr. 1790.
76 Swinburne, Henry, The Courts of Europe at the Close of the Last Century, ed. by White, Charles, 2 vols. (London, 1841), vol. 1, p. 383.Google Scholar
77 Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 264.
78 Sir Edward Gascoigne to Lord Irwin cited in Aveling, Northern Catholics, pp. 368 369.
79 The only other Gascoigne to conform to the Church of England was Sir Thomas Gascoigne's great great uncle Sir Thomas Gascoigne, 4th Bart, who conformed in 1707. He left no legitimate issue however, and the baronetcy passed lo his Catholic brother Sir John Gascoigne, 5th Bart. His wile remained a Catholic. Sec Coiman, F. S., A History of the Parish of Barwick-in-Elmet in the County of York (Leeds, 1908), pp. 153 154.Google Scholar
80 Namicr and Brooke, loc. cit., vol. I, p. 115.
81 Bossy, loc. cit., p. 150≫ 151.
82 Goodwin, Gordon, ‘Howard, Charles, tenth duke of Norfolk (1720–1786)’, ODNB; Robinson, loc. cit. p. 166;Google Scholar Gentleman's Magazine (London, 1816), p. 65.
83 See: Howard, Charles, Memorial of Charles Howard, Esq of Greystock and Miss Frances, Howard of the family of Norfolk, in England. Translated from the French (London, 1764);Google Scholar Howard, Charles, Thoughts, Essays and Maxims, Chiefly Religious and Political (London, 1768);Google Scholar Howard, Charles, Historical Anecdotes of Some of the Howard Family (London, 1769).Google Scholar
84 Robinson, lot: cit., p. 167.
85 Howard, Historical Anecdotes, p. II.
86 Howard, Thoughts, Essays and Maxims, pp. 49–64.
87 Ibidem, p. 54.
88 Ibidem, pp. 60, 11–12.
89 Arun. Cas. Arch., Correspondence of Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, MS c278. Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, to Rev. E. Beaumont in reply to the Catholics of Norwich, 11 Apr. 1788.
90 Best, loc. cit., p. 80. See also Knowles, Elizabeth, ed., The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (Oxford, 1999), p. 546.Google Scholar
91 Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, pp. 261 263.
92 Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 264.
93 Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, p. 261.
94 Ibidem, pp. 261 262.
95 Swinburne, Henry, Travels Through Spain in the Years 1775 and 1776. In Which Several Monuments of Roman and Moorish Architecture are Illustrated by Accurate Drawings Taken on the Spot, 2 vols, 2 edn (London, 1787), vol. 2, p. 389.Google Scholar
96 Bossy, loc. cit., p. 326.
97 Berington, loc. cit., p. 94.
98 Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, p. 262.
99 Ibidem.
100 Coiman, A History of Barwick-in-Elmet, p. 156; Scott, Geoffrey, ‘Library and Publication’ in Lamspringe: An English Abbey in Germany, ed. by Cramer, Anselm (Amplcforth, 2004), p. 66.Google Scholar
101 Aveling, J. C. H., Catholic Recusancy in York 1558–1791 (St. Albans, 1970), p. 118.Google Scholar Furthermore, in 1729 Sir Edward Gascoigne provided stone from his Huddlestone quarry for the building of the New Assembly Rooms in York. See Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 151.
102 Robinson, loc. cit., p. 166.
103 Ibidem.
104 Howard, Thoughts, Essays and Maxims, pp. 3–5, 10–12, 54–59, 60–64.
105 Goodwin, ‘Howard, Charles, tenth Duke of Norfolk’, ODNB; Robinson, loc. cit., p. 169.
106 Robinson, loc. cit., p. VI.
107 Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, p. 262.
108 Ibidem. See also, North Yorkshire County Record Office, Northallerton, Fairfax (Gilling) Papers, ZDV(F) MIC 1129. Letters of Charles, Lord Fairfax, 1760–1768; West Yorkshire Archive Service, Leeds, Gascoigne manuscripts, WYL115 Box 72. Folder of loose correspondence, 1761–1810.
109 Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 264.
110 Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, p. 262.
111 Ibidem.
112 Gascoigne Mss, WYL115 Box 72. Jarrard Strickland to Sir Thomas Gascoigne, 25 May 1763; Stephen Tempest to Sir Thomas Gascoigne, 29 Mar. 1763.
113 Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, p. 262.
114 Tempest, Stephen, Religio Laici (London, 1764), p. 4.Google Scholar
115 Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, p. 262; Tempest, loc. cit., pp. 51–57.
116 Aveling, Catholic Recusancy in York, p. 131; Stephen Tempest cited in Aveling, ‘The Catholic Recusants of the West Riding’, p. 263.
117 Tempest, loc. cit., p. 22.
118 Gascoigne Mss, WYL115 Box 72. Stephen Tempest to M. Guerin and Sir Thomas Gascoigne, 6 Jul. 1762.
119 Aveling, The Handle and the Axe, p. 264.
120 Gentleman's Magazine (London, 1816), p. 65.
121 List of Boys at St. Gregory's (Exeter, 1958), p. 17; Robinson, loc. cit., pp. 166, 172
122 Gooch, Leo, ‘What Shall we do with the Wanton Student?: Tutoring the Catholic Gentry in the Eighteenth Century’, Recusant History, vol. 22, no. 1 (1994), p. 63;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Gooch, ‘The Religion for a Gentleman’, p. 548. See also Birt, Henry Norbert, Downside: The History of St. Gregory's School (London, 1902), p. 76.Google Scholar
123 Gooch, ‘The Religion for a Gentleman’, p. 548.
124 Norman, Edward, Roman Catholicism in England: From the Elizabethan Settlement to the Second Vatican Council (Oxford, 1986), p. 46.Google Scholar For Norman this ‘independence of mind’ became the ‘basis of the Cisalpine spirit in English Catholicism’; a more progressive and liberal spirit that eschewed the old Jacobite allegiances and ‘stressed the benefits of the British Constitution’. Clearly the more liberal education given at colleges in Douai had a significant affect on the outlook of many Catholics. See pp. 46–47, 60.
125 Haydon, loc. cit., p. 10.