Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T04:21:03.728Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Evergreen Plants in Roman Britain and Beyond: Movement, Meaning and Materiality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 March 2017

Lisa A. Lodwick*
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of [email protected]

Abstract

In tandem with the large-scale translocation of food plants in the Roman world, ornamental evergreen plants and plant items were also introduced to new areas for ritual and ornamental purposes. The extent to which these new plants, primarily box and stone-pine, were grown in Britain has yet to be established. This paper presents a synthesis of archaeobotanical records of box, stone-pine and norway spruce in Roman Britain, highlighting chronological and spatial patterns. Archaeobotanical evidence is used alongside material culture to evaluate the movement of these plants and plant items into Roman Britain, their meaning and materiality in the context of human-plant relations in ornamental gardens and ritual activities. Archaeobotanical evidence for ornamental evergreen plants elsewhere in the Roman world is presented.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2017. Published by The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alcock, J.P. 1980: ‘Classical religious belief and burial practice in Roman Britain’, Archaeological Journal 137, 5085Google Scholar
Aldhouse-Green, M.J. 2004: An Archaeology of Images: Iconology and Cosmology in Iron Age and Roman Europe, LondonGoogle Scholar
Allen, M., Blick, N., Brindle, T., Evans, T., Fulford, M., Holbrook, N., and Smith, A. 2015: The Rural Settlement of Roman Britain: An Online Resource [data-set], Archaeology Data Service [distributor], York (doi: 10.5284/1030449)Google Scholar
Allevato, E., Russo Ermolli, E., Boetto, G., and Di Pasquale, G. 2010: ‘Pollen-wood analysis at the Neapolis harbour site (1st–3rd century AD, southern Italy) and its archaeobotanical implications’, Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (9), 2365–75Google Scholar
Allison, J. 1947: ‘Buxus sempervirens in a Late Roman burial in Berkshire: data for the study of post-glacial history of British vegetation. XI’, New Phytologist 46 (1), 122Google Scholar
Applebaum, S. 1958: ‘Agriculture in Roman Britain’, Agricultural History Review 6 (2), 6686Google Scholar
Bakels, C., and Jacomet, S. 2003: ‘Access to luxury foods in Central Europe during the Roman period: the archaeobotanical evidence’, World Archaeology 34 (3), 542–57Google Scholar
Barnett, C. 2011: ‘Wood charcoal’, in Barnett et al. 2011, 113–19Google Scholar
Barnett, C., McKilney, J., Stafford, E., Grimm, J., and Stevens, C. 2011: Settling the Ebbsfleet Valley. High Speed 1 Excavations at Springhead and Northfleet, Kent. The Late Iron Age, Roman, Saxon, and Medieval Landscape. Volume 3: Late Iron Age to Roman Human Remains and Environmental Reports, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Bartley, D.D., and Morgan, A.V. 1990: ‘The palynological record of the King's Pool, Stafford, England’, New Phytologist 116, 177–94Google Scholar
Batchelor, C.R., Allott, L., Elias, S., Campbell, G., Branch, N.P., Green, C.P., Marini, N., Austin, P., Giorgi, J., and Jones, L. 2011: Drapers Gardens, 12 Throgmorton Avenue, City of London: Environmental Archaeological Analysis (Site Code: DGT06), Quaternary Scientific (QUEST), unpub. report October 2011, Project Number 037/08Google Scholar
Bateman, N., Cowan, C., and Wroe-Brown, R. 2008: London's Roman Amphitheatre: Guildhall Yard, City of London, MoLAS Monograph 35, LondonGoogle Scholar
Bennett, K.D. 1984: ‘The post-glacial history of Pinus sylvestris in the British Isles’, Quaternary Science Reviews 3, 133–55Google Scholar
Bernal, M., Llorens, L., and Julkunen-Titto, R. 2013: ‘Altitudinal and seasonal changes of phenolic compounds in Buxus sempervirens leaves and cuticles’, Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 70, 471–82Google Scholar
Berti, F. 1990: Fortuna Maris: la nave romana di Comacchio, BolognaGoogle Scholar
Betts, E. 2011: ‘Towards a multisensory experience of movement in the city of Rome’, in Laurence and Newsome 2011, 118–32Google Scholar
Biddle, M., and Quirk, R.N. 1964: ‘Excavations near Winchester Cathedral, 1961’, Archaeological Journal 119, 150–94Google Scholar
Bird, J. 2004: ‘Incense in Mithraic ritual: the evidence of the finds’, in Martens, M. and De Boe, G. (eds), Roman Mithraism, the Evidence of the Small Finds, Brussels, 191–9Google Scholar
Blackburn, K. 1951: ‘Appendix I. Report upon the natural pine-cones from the Temple of Mithras at Carrawburgh’, in Richmond and Gillam 1951, 86Google Scholar
Blagg, T.F.C. 2000: ‘Sculptures and architectural fragments’, in MacKinder 2000, 61–3Google Scholar
Boivin, N., Fuller, D.Q., and Crowther, A. 2012: ‘Old World globalization and the Columbian exchange: comparison and contrast’, World Archaeology 44 (3), 452–69Google Scholar
Booth, P., Dodd, A., Robinson, M., and Smith, A. 2007: The Thames through Time: the Archaeology of the Gravel Terraces of the Upper and Middle Thames: the Early Historical Period, AD 1–1000, Thames Valley Landscape Monograph 27, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Borchard, F., Berger, H.-J., Bunzel-Drüke, M., and Fartmann, T. 2011: ‘Diversity of plant-animal interactions: possibilities for a new plant defense indicator value?’, Ecological Indicators 11, 1311–18Google Scholar
Bosi, G., Maria Mercuri, A., Bandini Mazzanti, M., Florenzano, A., Chiara Montecchi, M., Torri, P., Labate, D., and Rinaldi, R. 2015: ‘The evolution of Roman urban environments through the archaeobotanical remains in Modena – Northern Italy’, Journal of Archaeological Science 53, 1931Google Scholar
Bouby, L., and Marinval, P. 2004: ‘Fruits and seeds from Roman cremations in Limagne (Massif Central) and the spatial variability of plant offerings in France’, Journal of Archaeological Science 31, 7786Google Scholar
Bradley, M. 2015a: ‘Introduction: smell and the ancient senses’, in Bradley 2015b, 1–16Google Scholar
Bradley, M. (ed.) 2015b: Smell and the Ancient Senses, LondonGoogle Scholar
Braimbridge, M.V. 2008: ‘Boxwood in Roman times’, Topiarius 12 http://www.ebts.org/2013/12/boxwood-in-roman-times-by-mark-v-braimbridge/ (Accessed 7/6/2016)Google Scholar
Brettell, R.C., Schotsmans, E.M.J., Walton Rogers, P., Reifarth, N., Redfern, R.C., Stern, B., and Heron, C.P. 2015: ‘“Choicest unguents”: molecular evidence for the use of resinous plant exudates in late Roman mortuary rites in Britain’, Journal of Archaeological Science 53, 639–48Google Scholar
Brice, J. 2014: ‘Attending to grape vines: perceptual practices, planty agencies and multiple temporalities in Australian viticulture’, Social & Cultural Geography 15, 942–65Google Scholar
Brown, A.E. (ed.) 1991: Garden Archaeology, Papers Presented to a Conference at Knutston Hall, Northamptonshire, April 1988, CBA Research Report 78, LondonGoogle Scholar
Busby, P., de Moulins, D., Lyne, M., McPhillips, S., and Scaife, R. 2001: ‘Excavations at Clatterford Roman villa, Isle of Wight’, Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club and Archaeology Society 56, 95128Google Scholar
Butler, J., and Ridgeway, V. 2009: Secrets of the Gardens: Archaeologists Unearth the Lives of Roman Londoners at Drapers’ Gardens, Pre-Construct Archaeology, BrockleyGoogle Scholar
Campbell, G. 1995: ‘Waterlogged plant remains’, in Perrin, R., Raunds Iron Age and Romano-British Project: Assessment Report, November 1995, English Heritage Central Archaeology ServiceGoogle Scholar
Campbell, G. 1999: ‘The charred plant remains’, in Boyle, A. and Early, R., Excavations at Springhead Roman Town, Southfleet, Kent, OAU Occasional Paper 1, Oxford, 36–9Google Scholar
Campbell, G. 2008: ‘Charred plant remains’, in Cunliffe, B., The Danebury Environs Roman Programme: a Wessex Landscape during the Roman Era Volume 2 pt. 3. Fullerton, Hants, 2000 and 2001, English Heritage and Oxford University School of Archaeology, Oxford, 161–4Google Scholar
Caneva, G., and Bohuny, L. 2003: ‘Botanic analysis of Livia's villa painted flora (Prima Porta, Roma)’, Journal of Cultural Heritage 4 (2), 149–55Google Scholar
Carrott, J., Dobney, K., Hall, A., Kenward, H., and Miles, A. 1992: An Evaluation of Environmental Evidence from Excavations at 50 Piccadilly, York (YAT/Yorkshire Museum site code: 1992.10), Environmental Archaeology Unit, YorkGoogle Scholar
Carruthers, W. 2000: ‘Charred plant remains’, in Guttmann, E., ‘Excavations on the Hatfield Heath to Matching Tye rising main, north-west Essex’, Essex Archaeology and History 31, 27–9Google Scholar
Chadwick, A.M. 2015: ‘Doorways, ditches and dead dogs — material manifestations of practical magic in Iron Age and Roman Britain’, in Houlbrook, C. and Armitage, N. (eds), The Materiality of Magic: An Artefactual Investigation into Ritual Practices and Popular Beliefs, Oxford, 3764Google Scholar
Challinor, D. 2008: ‘Wood charcoal’, in Bennett, P., Clark, P., Hicks, A., Rady, J. and Riddler, I., At the Great Crossroads: Prehistoric, Roman and Medieval Discoveries on the Isle of Thanet 1994–95, Canterbury, 343–9Google Scholar
Coates, R. 1999: ‘Box in English place names’, English Studies 80 (1), 245Google Scholar
Columella: On Agriculture, Volume III: Books 10–12. On Trees, Loeb Classical Library 408, trans. Forster, E.S. and Heffner, E.H. (1995), Cambridge, Mass./LondonGoogle Scholar
Cowan, C., and Hinton, P. 2008: ‘The Roman garden in London’, in Clark, J., Cotton, J., Hall, J., Sherris, R. and Swain, H. (eds), Londinium and Beyond: Essays on Roman London and its Hinterland for Harvey Sheldon, CBA Research Report 156, York, 7581Google Scholar
Crosby, V., and Muldowney, L. 2011: Stanwick Quarry, Northamptonshire. Raunds Area Project: Phasing the Iron Age and Romano-British Settlement at Stanwick, Northamptonshire (Excavations 1984–1992). Archaeological Report: Volume 2, English Heritage Research Department Report Series 542011Google Scholar
Crummy, N. 2010: ‘Bears and coins: the iconography of protection in late Roman infant burials’, Britannia 41, 3793Google Scholar
Cunliffe, B. 1981: ‘Roman gardens in Britain: a review of the evidence’, in MacDougall and Jashemski 1981, 95–108Google Scholar
Dalton, O.M. 1920: ‘A sculptured marble slab from northern Mesopotamia’, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London 32, 5462Google Scholar
Daly, L., French, K., Miller, T.L., and Nic Eoin, L. 2016: ‘Integrating ontology into ethnobotanical research’, Journal of Ethnobiology 36 (1), 19Google Scholar
Davenport, P., Poole, C., and Jordan, D. 2007: Archaeology in Bath: Excavations at the New Royal Baths (the Spa), and Bellott's Hospital 1998–1999, Oxford Monograph 1, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Davis, A. 2011: ‘Botanical remains’, in Hill, J. and Rowsome, P., Roman London and the Walbrook Stream Crossing: Excavations at 1 Poultry and Vicinity, City of London Part II, MoLA Monograph 37, London, 524–33Google Scholar
Davis, A. 2015: ‘The plant remains’, in Harward, C., Powers, N. and Watson, S., The Upper Walbrook Valley Cemetery of Roman London: Excavations at Finsbury Circus, City of London, 1987–2007, MOLA Monograph 69, London, 169–75Google Scholar
Decocq, G., Bordier, D., Wattez, J.-R., and Racinet, P. 2004: ‘A practical approach to assess the native status of a rare plant species: the controversy of Buxus sempervirens L. in northern France revisited’, Plant Ecology 173 (1), 139–51Google Scholar
Dickson, C. 1994: ‘Macroscopic fossils of garden plants from British Roman and medieval deposits’, in Moe, D., Dickson, J. and Jorgensen, P.M. (eds), Garden History: Garden Plants, Species, Forms and Varieties from Pompeii to 1800, Rixensart, 4772Google Scholar
Di Domenico, F., Lucchese, F., and Magri, D. 2011: ‘Late glacial and Holocene history of Buxus sempervirens L. in Italy’, Annali Di Botanica 1, 4558Google Scholar
Di Domenico, F., Lucchese, F., and Magri, D. 2012: ‘Buxus in Europe: late quaternary dynamics and modern vulnerability’, Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 14 (5), 354–62Google Scholar
Dimbleby, G. 1978: Plants and Archaeology, LondonGoogle Scholar
Doherty, G. 1987: ‘The pine-scales’, in Meates, G., The Roman Villa at Lullingstone, Kent. Volume II: the Wall Paintings and Finds, Kent Archaeological Society Monograph 3, Maidstone, 318Google Scholar
Dorcey, P. 1992: The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion, Columbia Studies Classical Tradition 20, Leiden/New YorkGoogle Scholar
Draycott, H. 2015: ‘Smelling trees, flowers and herbs in the ancient world’, in Bradley 2015b, 60–73Google Scholar
Eckardt, H. 2014: Objects and Identities: Roman Britain and the North-Western Provinces, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Eckardt, H., Brewer, P., Hay, S., and Poppy, S. 2009: ‘Roman barrows and their landscape context: a GIS case study at Bartlow, Cambridgeshire’, Britannia 40, 6598Google Scholar
Elsner, J. 2012: ‘Sacrifice in late Roman art’, Faraone, C.A. and Naiden, F.S. (eds), Greek and Roman Animal Sacrifice: Ancient Victims, Modern Observers, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Evans, C., and Lucy, S. 2008: Mucking Excavations, Essex. Archive and Publication Project – Prehistoric and Roman – Overview and Assessment, Cambridge Archaeological Unit, Cambridge (doi: 10.5284/1000060)Google Scholar
Farrar, L. 2011: Ancient Roman Gardens, StroudGoogle Scholar
Fitter, A.H., and Peat, H. 1994: ‘The ecological flora database’, Journal of Ecology 82, 415–25, http://www.ecoflora.co.uk/index.php (Accessed 17/4/2016)Google Scholar
Fless, F. 1995: Opferdiener und Kultmusiker auf stadtrömischen historichen Reliefs, MainzGoogle Scholar
Fryer, V. 2004: ‘Charred plant macrofossils and other remains’, in Brooks, H., Archaeological Excavation at 29–39 Head Street, Colchester, Essex May–September 2000, Colchester, 169–85Google Scholar
Fryer, V., and Murphy, P. 2014: ‘Plant macrofossils’, in Ashwin, T. and Tester, A., A Romano-British Settlement in the Waveney Valley: Excavations at Scole 1993–4, Norfolk Historic Environment Service in conjunction with NPS Archaeology, Suffolk County Council Archaeological Service and ALGAO East, Dereham, 400–2Google Scholar
Fulford, M., and Holbrook, N. 2011: ‘Assessing the contribution of commercial archaeology to the study of the Roman period in England, 1990–2004’, Antiquaries Journal 91, 323–45Google Scholar
Gage, J. 1839: ‘A letter from John Gage, Esq. F.R.S., Director, to Hudson Gurney, Esq. F.R.S. V.P. &c. containing an account of further discoveries of Roman sepulchral relics at the Bartlow Hills’, Archaeologia 28 (1), 16Google Scholar
Gaitzsch, W., Knörzer, K.-H., Köhler, R., Kokabi, M., Meurers-Balke, J., Neyses, M., and Radermacher, H. 1989: ‘Archäologische und naturwissenschaftliche Beiträge zu einem römischen Brunnensediment aus der rheinischen Lössbörde’, Bonner Jahrbücher 189, 225–83Google Scholar
Giesecke, T., and Bennett, K.D. 2004: ‘The Holocene spread of Picea abies (L.) Karst. in Fennoscandia and adjacent areas’, Journal of Biogeography 31, 1523–48Google Scholar
Giorgi, J. 1997: ‘The plant remains’, in Mackinder 2000, 65–6Google Scholar
Girard, M., and Tchernia, A. 1978: ‘Remarques à propos des cônes de pin pignon (Pinus pinea) découverts sur l’épave de la madrauge de Giens’, in Tchernia, A., Pompey, P. and Hesnard, A., L’Épave romaine de la madrague de Giens (Var), campagnes 1972–1975: Fouilles de l'Institut d'Archéologie Méditerranéenne, Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 117–18Google Scholar
Gleason, K.L. 1994: ‘Porticus Pompeiana: a new perspective on the first public park of ancient Rome’, Journal of Garden History 14 (1), 1327Google Scholar
Gleason, K.L. 2010: ‘Constructing nature: the built garden. With notice of a new monumental garden at the Villa Arianna, Stabiae’, in International Congress of Classical Archaeology Meetings Between Cultures in the Ancient Mediterranean, Bolletino di Archeologia on line, Volume Speciale, 8–15Google Scholar
Godwin, H. 1975: The History of the British Flora, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Goodburn, D. 1999: ‘The evidence for the introduction of the Mediterranean “Stone Pine” to Roman England’, NewsWARP 25, 1922Google Scholar
Gosden, C., and Marshall, Y. 1999: ‘The cultural biography of objects’, World Archaeology 31 (2), 169–78Google Scholar
Gray, H.S.G. 1918: ‘Leaden coffin found at Cann, near Shaftesbury’, Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club 38, 6873Google Scholar
Green, M.J. 1976: The Religions of Civilian Roman Britain, BAR British Series 24, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Grimes, W. 1968: The Excavation of Roman and Mediaeval London, LondonGoogle Scholar
Hall, A.R., and Kenward, H.K. 1990: Environmental Evidence from the Colonia: Tanner Row and Rougier Street, Archaeology of York 14/6, YorkGoogle Scholar
Hall, A.R., Kenward, H.K., and Williams, D. 1980: Environmental Evidence from Roman Deposits in Skeldergate, Archaeology of York 14/3, YorkGoogle Scholar
Hall, M. 2011: Plants as Persons: a Philosophical Botany, AlbanyGoogle Scholar
Hamilakis, Y. 2011: ‘Archaeology of the senses’, in Insoll, T. (ed.), Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion, Oxford, 208–25Google Scholar
Head, L., and Atchison, J. 2009: ‘Cultural ecology: emerging human-plant geographies’, Progress in Human Geography 33 (2), 236–45Google Scholar
Head, L., Atchison, J., Phillips, C., and Buckingham, K. 2014: ‘Vegetal politics: belonging, practices and places’, Social and Cultural Geography 15 (8), 861–70Google Scholar
Henig, M. 1984: Religion in Roman Britain, LondonGoogle Scholar
Henricot, B., and Culham, A. 2002: ‘Cylindrocladium buxicola, a new species affecting Buxus spp., and its phylogenetic status’, Mycologia 94 (6), 980–97Google Scholar
Henshaw, V. 2014: Urban Smellscapes – Understanding and Designing City Smell Environments, LondonGoogle Scholar
Hicks, D. 2010: ‘The material-cultural turn: event and effect’, in Hicks, D. and Beaudry, M.C. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Material Culture Studies, Oxford, 2599Google Scholar
Hill, J., and Rowsome, P. 2011: Roman London and the Walbrook Stream Crossing: Excavations at 1 Poultry and Vicinity, City of London, LondonGoogle Scholar
Hill, M.O., Preston, C.D., and Roy, D.B. 2004: PLANTATT. Attributes of British and Irish Plants: Status, Size, Life History, Geography and Habitats, Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, HuntingdonGoogle Scholar
Hitchings, R. 2003: ‘People, plants and performance: on actor network theory and the material pleasures of the private garden’, Social and Cultural Geography 4 (1), 99114Google Scholar
Hood, S., and Walton, H. 1948: ‘A Romano-British cremating place and burial ground on Roden Downs, Compton, Berkshire’, Transactions of the Newbury and District Field Club 9 (1), 1062Google Scholar
Hughes, J.D. 2003: ‘Europe as consumer of exotic biodiversity: Greek and Roman times’, Landscape Research 28 (1), 2131Google Scholar
Ingold, T. 1993: ‘The temporality of the landscape’, World Archaeology 35 (2), 152–74Google Scholar
Jackson, R.P.J., and Potter, T.W. 1996: Excavations at Stonea, Cambridgeshire 1980–85, LondonGoogle Scholar
Jashemski, W.F. 1981: ‘The Campanian peristyle garden’, in Macdougall and Jashemski 1981, 31–48Google Scholar
Jashemski, W.F., Foss, J.E., Lewis, R.J., Timpson, M.E., and Lee, S.Y. 1995: ‘Roman gardens in Tunisia: preliminary excavations in the House of Bacchus and Ariadne and in the East Temple at Thuburbo Maius’, American Journal of Archaeology 99 (4), 559–76Google Scholar
Jones, J. 1989: ‘Botanical remains’, in Blockley, K., Prestatyn 1984–5: An Iron Age Farmstead and Romano-British Industrial Settlement in North Wales, BAR British Series 210, Oxford, 171–9Google Scholar
Jones, O., and Cloke, P. 2008: ‘Non-human agencies: trees in place and time’, in Knappett, C. and Malafouris, L. (eds), Material Agency: Towards a Non-anthropocentric Approach, Dusseldorf, 7996Google Scholar
Kefalidou, E. 2009: ‘The plants of victory in ancient Greece and Rome’, in Morel, J.-P. and Mercuri, A.M. (eds), Plants and Culture: Seeds of the Cultural Heritage of Europe, Bari, 3944Google Scholar
Kenward, H.K., Addyman, P.V., Hall, A.R., and Jones, A.K.G. 1986: Environmental Evidence from a Roman Well and Anglian Pits in the Legionary Fortress, Archaeology of York 14/5, YorkGoogle Scholar
Kislev, M. 1988: ‘Pinus pinea in agriculture, culture and cult’, in Kuster, H. (ed.), Der prähistorische Mensch und seine Umwelt. Festschrift für Udelgard Körber Grohne zum 65 Geburtstag, Stuttgart, 73–9Google Scholar
Knörzer, K.-L., and Neu, S. 1998: ‘Archäologische untersuchungen an der plectrudengasse in Köln’, Kölner Jahrbuch 31, 445–80Google Scholar
Koloski-Ostrow, A.O. 2015: ‘Roman urban smells: the archaeological evidence’, in Bradley 2015b, 90–109Google Scholar
Kopytopff, I. 1986: ‘The cultural biography of things: commoditization as process’, in Appadurai, A. (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspectives, Cambridge, 6491Google Scholar
Lamboglia, N. 1952: ‘La nave romana die Albenga’, Rivista di Studi Liguri 18 (3/4), 131236Google Scholar
Lambrick, G., and Robinson, M. 1979: Iron Age and Roman Riverside Settlements at Farmoor, Oxford, CBA Research Report 32, LondonGoogle Scholar
Laurence, R., and Newsome, D. (eds) 2011: Rome, Ostia, Pompeii: Movement and Space, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Livarda, A. 2013: ‘Date, rituals and socio-cultural identity in the north-western Roman provinces’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 32, 101–17Google Scholar
Lodwick, L. 2015: ‘Identifying ritual deposition of plant remains: a case study of stone pine cones in Roman Britain’, in Brindle, T., Allen, M., Durham, E. and Smith, A. (eds), TRAC 2014: Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, Oxford, 54–69Google Scholar
Lodwick, L.A. 2016: ‘“The debatable territory where geology and archaeology meet”: reassessing the early archaeobotanical work of Clement Reid and Arthur Lyell at Roman Silchester’, Environmental Archaeology (doi: 10.1080/14614103.2015.1116218)Google Scholar
Lodwick, L., and Challinor, D. forthcoming: ‘The plant remains from cremations 3343 and 4593’, in Horcott Quarry, Oxford ArchaeologyGoogle Scholar
Mabey, R. 1996: Flora Britannica: The Definitive New Guide to Wild Flowers, Plants and Trees, LondonGoogle Scholar
Macaulay-Lewis, E. 2008: ‘The fruits of victory: generals, plants and power in the Roman world’, in Bragg, E., Hay, L. and Macaulay-Lewis, E. (eds), Beyond the Battlefields: New Perspectives on Warfare and Society in the Graeco-Roman World, Newcastle upon Tyne, 205–25Google Scholar
Macaulay-Lewis, E. 2011: ‘The city in motion: walking for transport and leisure in the city of Rome’, in Laurence and Newsome 2011, 262–89Google Scholar
Macchioni, F., Cioni, P.L., Flamini, G., Morelli, I., Maccioni, S., and Ansaldi, M. 2003: ‘Chemical composition of essential oils from needles, branches and cones of Pinus pinea, P. halepensis, P. pinaster and P. nigra from central Italy’, Flavour and Fragrance Journal 18, 139–43Google Scholar
Macdougall, E.B., and Jashemski, W.F. 1981: Ancient Roman Gardens, WashingtonGoogle Scholar
MacKinder, A. 2000: A Romano British Cemetery on Watling Street. Excavations at 165 Great Dover Street, Southwark, London, MoLAS Archaeology Studies Series 4, LondonGoogle Scholar
Mally, R., and Nuss, M. 2010: ‘Phylogeny and nomenclature of the box tree moth, Cydalima perspectalis (Walker, 1859) comb. n., which was recently introduced into Europe (Lepidoptera: Pyraloidea: Crambidae: Spilomelinae)’, European Journal of Entomology 107 (3), 393400Google Scholar
Maloney, C., and de Moulins, D. 1990: The Upper Walbrook Valley in the Roman Period, CBA Research Report 69, LondonGoogle Scholar
Marinval, P., Maréchal, D., and Labadie, D. 2002: ‘Arbres fruitiers et cultures jardinées gallo-romains à Longueil-Sainte-Marie (Oise)’, Gallia 59 (1), 253–71Google Scholar
Marzano, A. 2014: ‘Roman gardens, military conquests, and elite self-representation’, in Coleman, K. (ed.), Le Jardin dans l'antiquité. Entretiens sur l'Antiquité Classique (LX), Geneva, 195244Google Scholar
Mercuri, A.M., Accorsi, C.A., Bandini Mazzanti, M., Bosi, G., Terranova, F., Torri, P., Trevisan Grandi, G., Montecchi, M.C., and Olmi, L. 2006: ‘The Greek-Roman theatre of Taormina: pollen and microanthracological data for the proposal of a “Historical Green Park”’, in Morel, J.P., Tresserras, J. and Matalama, J.C. (eds), The Archaeology of Crop Fields and Gardens, Bari, 161–74Google Scholar
Meurers-Balke, J., and Herchenbach, M. 2014: ‘Römische gartenkunst am Niederrhein’, Archäologie im Rheinland 2014, 151–4Google Scholar
Miller, H., Carden, R.F., Evans, J., Lamb, A., Madgwick, R., Osborne, D., Symmons, R., and Sykes, N. 2016: ‘Dead or alive? Investigating long-distance transport of live fallow deer and their body parts in antiquity’, Environmental Archaeology 21 (3), 246–59Google Scholar
Miller, J. 2013: ‘Appendix 18 – Botanical analysis of cremation deposits’, in Davies, G., Excavations at Waterdale, Doncaster. Excavation Report, ArcHeritage Report 2013/13.3, Sheffield (doi: 10.5284/1029314, 117–24)Google Scholar
Monckton, A. 2000: ‘Charred plant remains’, in Ferris, I., Bevan, L., and Cuttler, R. (eds), The Excavation of a Romano-British Shrine at Orton's Pasture, Rocester, Staffordshire, BAR British Series 314, Oxford, 6771Google Scholar
Moser, D., Allevato, E., Clarke, J.R., Di Pasquale, G., and Nelle, O. 2012: ‘Archaeobotany at Oplontis: woody remains from the Roman Villa of Poppaea (Naples, Italy)’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 22 (5), 397408Google Scholar
Murphy, C., Thompson, G., and Fuller, D.Q. 2013: ‘Roman food refuse: urban archaeobotany in Pompeii, Regio VI, Insula 1’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 22 (5), 409–19Google Scholar
Murphy, P. 1977: Early Agriculture and Environment on the Hampshire Chalklands: circa. 800 B.C.–400 A.D., unpub. MPhil thesis, University of SouthamptonGoogle Scholar
Murphy, P. 1984: ‘Environmental archaeology in East Anglia’, in Keeley, H.C.M. (ed.), Environmental Archaeology: A Regional Review, London, 1342Google Scholar
Murphy, P. 1998: A Review of Plant Macrofossils from Archaeological Sites in the Eastern Counties, NorwichGoogle Scholar
Murphy, P. 2001: Review of Wood and Macroscopic Wood Charcoal from Archaeological Sites in the West and East Midlands Regions and the East of England, Centre for Archaeology Report 23/2001, PortsmouthGoogle Scholar
Murphy, P., and Scaife, R. 1991: ‘The environmental archaeology of gardens’, in Brown 1991, 83–99Google Scholar
Murphy, P., Albarella, U., and Germany, M. 2000: ‘Production, imports and status: biological remains from a Late Roman farm at Great Holts Farm, Essex, UK’, Environmental Archaeology 5, 3548Google Scholar
Mutke, S., Calama, R., Gonzalez-Martinez, S., Montero, G., Gordo, F., Bono, D., and Gil, L. 2012: ‘Mediterranean stone pine: botany and horticulture’, Horticultural Reviews 39, 153201Google Scholar
Nealon, J.T. 2016: Plant Theory: Biopower & Vegetable Life, StanfordGoogle Scholar
Oldfield, F., and Statham, D.C. 1963: ‘Pollen analytical data from Urswick Tarn and Ellerside Moss, N. Lancashire’, New Phytologist 62, 5366Google Scholar
Overbeck, J., and Mau, A. 1884: Pompeji in seinen Gebäuden, Alterthümern und Kunstwerken, LeipzigGoogle Scholar
Pearson, E., and Robinson, M. 1994: ‘Environmental evidence from the villa’, in Williams, R.J. and Zeepvat, E.J., Bancroft: A Late Bronze Age/Iron Age Settlement Roman Villa & Temple-Mausoleum. Volume 2 Finds & Environmental Evidence, Buckinghamshire Archaeological Society Monograph Series 7, Aylesbury, 565–84Google Scholar
Pellegrini, P., and Baudry, S. 2014: ‘Streets as new places to bring together both humans and plants: examples from Paris and Montpellier (France)’, Social & Cultural Geography 15 (8), 871900Google Scholar
Pelling, R. 2008: ‘The charred plant remains’, in Bennett, P., Clark, P., Hicks, A., Rady, J. and Riddler, I., At the Great Crossroads: Prehistoric, Roman and Medieval Discoveries on the Isle of Thanet 1994–95, Canterbury, 262–9Google Scholar
Peterken, G.F. 2001: ‘Ecological effects of introduced tree species in Britain’, Forest Ecology and Management 141, 3142Google Scholar
Pigott, C., and Walters, S. 1953: ‘Is the Box-tree a native of England?’, in Lousley, J.E. (ed.), The Changing Flora of Britain, Oxford, 184–7Google Scholar
Piranomonte, M. 2015: ‘The discovery of the fountain of Anna Perenna and its influence on the study of ancient magic’, in Bąkowska-Czerner, G., Roccati, A. and Świerzowska, A. (eds), The Wisdom of Thoth. Magical Texts in Ancient Mediterranean Civilisations, Oxford, 7185Google Scholar
Pitt, H. 2015: ‘On showing and being shown plants — a guide to methods for more-than-human geography’, Area 47 (1), 4855Google Scholar
Pliny the Elder: Natural History Volume IV: Books 1216, Loeb Classical Library 370, trans. Rackham, H. (1945), Cambridge, Mass./LondonGoogle Scholar
Pliny the Elder: Natural History Volume V: Books 1719, Loeb Classical Library 371, trans. Rackham, H. (1950), Cambridge, Mass./LondonGoogle Scholar
Pliny the Younger: Letters, Loeb Classical Library 59, trans. Radice, B. (1989), Cambridge, Mass./LondonGoogle Scholar
Pollard, E.A. 2009: ‘Pliny's Natural History and the Flavian Templum Pacis: botanical imperialism in first-century C.E. Rome’, Journal of World History 20 (3), 309–38Google Scholar
Popova, T. 2010: ‘Archaeobotanical data from the ancient town of Apolonia’, Anadolu Araştirmalari Jahrbuch für Kleinasiatische Forschung 19 (1), 213–26Google Scholar
Price, E. 2000: Frocester: A Romano-British Settlement, its Antecedents and Successors. Volume 2: The Finds, StonehouseGoogle Scholar
Pugsley, P. 2003: Roman Domestic Wood: Analysis of the Morphology, Manufacture and Use of Selected Categories of Domestic Wooden Artefacts with Particular Reference to the Material from Roman Britain, BAR International Series 1118, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Rahtz, P., and Greenfield, E. 1977: Excavations at Chew Valley Lake Somerset, LondonGoogle Scholar
Ramsay, J. 2010: ‘Trade or trash: an examination of the archaeobotanical remains from the Byzantine harbour at Caesarea Maritima, Israel’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 39 (2), 376–82Google Scholar
RIB: The Roman Inscriptions of Britain I, Inscriptions on Stone, Collingwood, R.G. and Wright, R.P. (eds), Oxford (1965)Google Scholar
Richmond, I.A., and Gillam, J. 1951: ‘The temple of Mithras at Carrawburgh’, Archaeologia Aeliana 29, 192Google Scholar
Roberts, K. 2008: ‘Plant remains’, in Swift, D., Roman Waterfront Development at 12 Arthur Street, City of London, MOLAS Archaeology Studies Series 19, London, 6770Google Scholar
Robinson, M. 2002: ‘Domestic burnt offerings and sacrifices at Roman and pre-Roman Pompeii, Italy’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 11, 93–9Google Scholar
Robinson, M. 2007: ‘The environmental archaeology of the Cotswold Water Park’, in Miles, D., Palmer, S., Smith, A. and Edgeley Long, G., Iron Age and Roman Settlement in the Upper Thames Valley: Excavations at Claydon Pike and Other Sites within the Cotswold Water Park, Thames Valley Landscapes Monograph 26, Oxford, 355–64Google Scholar
Robinson, M. 2011a: ‘The macroscopic plant and invertebrate remains’, in Fulford, M. and Clarke, A., Silchester: City in Transition, Britannia Monograph 25, London, 281–93Google Scholar
Robinson, M. 2011b: ‘Charred and waterlogged remains’, in Luke, M. and Preece, T., Farm and Forge: Late Iron Age/Romano-British Farmsteads at Marsh Leys, Kempston, Bedfordshire, East Anglian Archaeology Report 138, Bedford, 128–34Google Scholar
Robinson, M. 2015: ‘The place of developer-funded archaeobotany in elucidating the food supply of the towns of Roman Britain’, in Fulford, M. and Holbrook, N. (eds), The Towns of Roman Britain: The Contribution of Commercial Archaeology since 1990, Britannia Monograph 27, London, 167–74Google Scholar
Rosati, L., Masi, A., Giardini, M., and Marignani, M. 2015: ‘Under the shadow of a big plane tree: why Platanus orientalis should be considered an archaeophyte in Italy’, Plant Biosystems – An International Journal Dealing with All Aspects of Plant Biology 149 (1), 185–94Google Scholar
Ross, A. 1975: ‘A wooden statuette from Venta Belgarum’, in M. Biddle, ‘Excavations at Winchester, 1971: tenth and final interim report: Part II’, Antiquaries Journal 55, 335–6Google Scholar
Rottoli, M., and Castiglioni, E. 2011: ‘Plant offerings from Roman cremations in northern Italy: a review’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20 (5), 495506Google Scholar
Scaife, R. 1986: ‘Pollen in human palaeofaeces; and a preliminary investigation of the stomach and gut contents of Lindow Man’, in Stead, I.M., Bourke, J.B. and Brothwell, D., Lindow Man. The Body in the Bog, London, 126–35Google Scholar
Scaife, R. 2011: ‘Pollen analysis of sediments’, in Hill, J. and Rowsome, P., Roman London and the Walbrook Stream Crossing: Excavations at 1 Poultry and Vicinity, City of London, MoLA Monograph 37, London, 533–9Google Scholar
Sealey, P. 2009: ‘New light on the wine trade with Julio-Claudian Britain’, Britannia 40, 140Google Scholar
Smith, W. 2002: A Review of Archaeological Wood Analyses in Southern England, Centre for Archaeology Report 75/2002, PortsmouthGoogle Scholar
Smythe, J. 1951: ‘Appendix II. Report upon the pine-cone fuel from the Mithraeum at Carrawburgh’, in Richmond and Gillam 1951, 86–7Google Scholar
Šoštarić, R., and Küster, H. 2001: ‘Roman plant remains from Veli Brijun (island of Brioni), Croatia’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 10 (4), 227–33Google Scholar
Stace, C. 2010: New Flora of the British Isles, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Stant, M.Y., and Metcalfe, C.R. 1977: ‘Seeds and other plant debris’, in Rahtz and Greenfield 1977, 372–3Google Scholar
Stevens, C. 2011: ‘Charred plant remains from Springhead’, in Barnett et al. . 2011, 95–105Google Scholar
Sykes, N. 2009: ‘Worldviews in transition: the impact of exotic plants and animals on Iron Age/Romano-British landscapes’, Landscapes 10 (2), 1936Google Scholar
Sykes, N. 2014: Beastly Questions: Animal Answers to Archaeological Issues, LondonGoogle Scholar
Taylor, A. 1999: Roman Cambridge: Excavations on Castle Hill, 1956–1988, Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society 88Google Scholar
Thomas, J. 2015: ‘The future of archaeological theory’, Antiquity 89, 1287–96Google Scholar
Tillyard, E. 1917: ‘A Cybele altar in London’, Journal of Roman Studies 7, 284–8Google Scholar
Tite, W. 1848: A Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities found in the Excavations at the New Royal Exchange, Preserved in the Museum of the Corporation of London … with some Particulars and Suggestions Relating to Roman London, printed for the use of the members of the Corporation of the City of London, LondonGoogle Scholar
Tomlinson, P., and Hall, A. 1996: ‘Review of archaeological evidence for food plants from the British Isles (ABCD)’, Internet Archaeology 1 (doi: 10:11141/ia.1.5)Google Scholar
Totelin, L. 2012: ‘Botanizing rulers and their herbal subjects: plants and political power in Greek and Roman literature’, Phoenix 66, 122–43Google Scholar
Van der Sanden, W., and Turner, R. 2004: ‘The Strata Florida manikin: how exotic is it?’, Journal of Wetland Archaeology 4 (1), 8396Google Scholar
Van der Veen, M. 1996: ‘Plant remains’, in Jackson and Potter 1996, 613–39Google Scholar
Van der Veen, M. 2008: ‘Food as embodied material culture: diversity and change in plant food consumption in Roman Britain’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 21, 83109Google Scholar
Van der Veen, M. 2011: Consumption, Trade and Innovation. Exploring the Botanical Remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt, Frankfurt am MainGoogle Scholar
Van der Veen, M. 2014: ‘The materiality of plants: plant-people entanglements’, World Archaeology 46 (5), 799812Google Scholar
Van der Veen, M., Livarda, A., and Hill, A. 2007: ‘The archaeobotany of Roman Britain: current state and identification of research priorities’, Britannia 38, 181210Google Scholar
Van der Veen, M., Livarda, A., and Hill, A. 2008: ‘New plant foods in Roman Britain – dispersal and social access’, Environmental Archaeology 13 (1), 1136Google Scholar
Versluys, M.J. 2014: ‘Understanding objects in motion. An archaeological dialogue on Romanization’, Archaeological Dialogues 21, 120Google Scholar
Waller, M.P., and Hamilton, S. 2000: ‘Vegetation history of the English chalklands: a mid-Holocene pollen sequence from the Caburn, East Sussex’, Journal of Quaternary Science 15, 253–72Google Scholar
Walters, H.B. 1899: Catalogue of the Bronzes, Greek, Roman, and Etruscan, in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum, LondonGoogle Scholar
Walters, S., and Stow, E. 2001: Darwin's Mentor: John Stevens Henslow, 1796–1861, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Wheeler, R.E.M., and Wheeler, T.V. 1936: Verulamium. A Belgic and Two Roman Cities, Society of Antiquaries Research Report 11, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Willcox, G. 1977: ‘Exotic plants from Roman waterlogged sites in London’, Journal of Archaeological Science 4 (3), 269–82Google Scholar
Willcox, G. 1980: ‘The environmental evidence’, in Hill, C., Millett, M. and Blagg, T., The Roman Riverside Wall and Monumental Arch in London, London and Middlesex Archaeological Society Special Paper 3, London, 7882Google Scholar
Wiltshire, P. 2000: ‘The pollen assessment’, in Anon., Report on the Excavations at the Zionshill Copse Enclosure, near Chandlers Ford, Hampshire, Berkshire Archaeological Services, 1014Google Scholar
Wiltshire, P. 2008: ‘Palynological analysis of sediments from Roman waterholes’, in Booth, P., Bingham, A.M. and Lawrence, S., The Roman Roadside Settlement at Westhawk Farm Ashford, Kent, Excavations 1998–9, Oxford Archaeology Monograph 2, Oxford, 337–43Google Scholar
Witcher, R. 2013: ‘On Rome's ecological contribution to British flora and fauna: landscape, legacy and identity’, Landscape History 34 (2), 526Google Scholar
Zach, B. 2002: ‘Vegetable offerings on the Roman sacrificial site in Mainz, Germany – short report on the first results’, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 11, 101–6Google Scholar
Zeepvat, R.J. 1991: ‘Roman gardens in Britain’, in Brown 1991, 53–9Google Scholar