Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T08:48:26.411Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

An Unusual Roman Fettered Burial from Great Casterton, Rutland

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 June 2021

Chris Chinnock
Affiliation:
Museum of London Archaeology [email protected] [email protected]
Michael Marshall
Affiliation:
Museum of London Archaeology [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

In 2015, an unusual burial was uncovered during construction works at Great Casterton, Rutland. A male adult human skeleton, secured at the ankles with a pair of iron fetters and a padlock, was buried in a probable ditch. Iron hobnails were present around the feet of the individual. A radiocarbon date (AMS) from the burial produced a date of a.d. 226–427 with 95.4 per cent probability. This example appears to be the first definitive archaeologically excavated instance of an individual buried in this manner in Roman Britain. The character of the burial may imply that this was a slave, although other possibilities are also considered, as are the wider social and symbolic implications of the inclusion of shackles in a burial.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aldhouse-Green, M. 2004: ‘Chaining and shaming: images of defeat, from Llyn Cerrig Bach to Sarmitzegetusa’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 23.3, 319–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alfayé, S. 2009: ‘Sit tibi terra gravis: magical-religious practices against restless dead in the ancient world’, in Marco, F., Pina, F. and Remesal, J. (eds), Formae mortis: el tránsito de la vida a la muerte en las sociedades antiguas, Barcelona, 181216Google Scholar
Audin, A., and Armand-Calliat, L. 1962: ‘Entraves antiques trouvées en Bourgogne et dans le Lyonnais’, Revue archéologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est 13, 738Google Scholar
Baratti, G. 2018: ‘Sepolto incatenato tra le dune di Baratti: dallo scavo alla mostra’, in Megale, C. (ed.), Costruire il passato in Etruria: il senso dell'archeologia nella società contemporanea, Pisa, 95102Google Scholar
Barrett, J.C., Freeman, P.W.M., and Woodward, A. 2000: Cadbury Castle, Somerset: The Later Prehistoric and Early Historic Archaeology, English Heritage Archaeological Report 20, LondonGoogle Scholar
Bass, W. 1987: Human Osteology, ColumbiaGoogle Scholar
Berges Soriano, P.M. 1979: ‘las ruinas de Els Munts’, Información Arqueológica 3, 81–7Google Scholar
Betz, H. 1992: The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, ChicagoGoogle Scholar
Black, E.W. 1986: ‘Romano-British burial customs and religious beliefs in south-east England’, Archaeological Journal 143, 201–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birley, A.R. 1980: The People of Roman Britain, BerkeleyGoogle Scholar
Bodel, J. 2000: ‘Dealing with the dead: undertakers, executioners and potter's fields in ancient Rome’, in Hope, V.M. and Marshall, E. (eds), Death and Disease in the Ancient City, London, 128–51Google Scholar
Bodel, J. 2011: ‘Slave labour and Roman society’, in Bradley, K. and Cartledge, P. (eds), The Cambridge World History of Slavery 1, Cambridge, 311–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowman, A.K., and Thomas, J.D. 1994: The Vindolanda Writing Tablets: Tabulae Vindolandenses 2, LondonGoogle Scholar
Bradley, K. 1984: Slaves and Masters in the Roman Empire: A Study in Social Control, TournaiGoogle Scholar
Bradley, K., and Cartledge, P. (eds) 2011: The Cambridge World History of Slavery 1, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brickley, M., and McKinley, J. 2004: Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains, Institute of Field Archaeologists Paper 7, ReadingGoogle Scholar
Brunn, C. 2014: ‘Slaves and freed slaves’, in Brunn, C. and Edmondson, J. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Epigraphy, Oxford, 605–62Google Scholar
Buck, T., Greene, E., Meyer, A., Barlow, V., and Graham, E. 2019: ‘The body in the ditch: alternative funerary practices on the northern frontier of the Roman Empire?’, Britannia 50, 203–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caffell, A., and Holst, M. 2012: Osteological Analysis: 3 and 6 Driffield Terrace, York, North Yorkshire, York Osteoarchaeology Report 0212, YorkGoogle Scholar
Chauvet, G. 1904: ‘Séance du 13 juillet 1904: menottes gallo-romainès’, Petites notes d'archéologie charentaise 1, 40–1Google Scholar
Chinnock, C., and Sharman, T. 2017: Archaeological Investigation, Recording and Analysis on Land at Newhaven, Pickworth Road, Great Casterton, Rutland September 2015, MOLA Northampton Report 17/31, NorthamptonGoogle Scholar
Cook, G.T. 2015: Radiocarbon Dating Report to Alecto Forensics on a Human Femoral Head from Newhaven, Pickworth Road, Great Casterton, Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre (SUERC) Report, GlasgowGoogle Scholar
Cool, H.E.M. 1983: A Study of the Roman Personal Ornaments Made of Metal, Excluding Brooches, from Southern Britain, unpub. PhD thesis, University of CardiffGoogle Scholar
Cool, H.E.M. 2000: ‘The parts left over: material culture into the fifth century’, in Wilmott, T. and Wilson, P. (eds), The Late Roman Transition in the North: Papers from the Roman Archaeology Conference Durham 1999, British Archaeological Reports British Series 299, Oxford, 4765Google Scholar
Cool, H.E.M. 2015: Selected Roman Small Finds from the Cemetery at Nos. 3 and 6 Driffield Terrace, York, unpub. report, https://www.academia.edu/19564829/Selected_Roman_Small_finds_from_the_Cemetery_at_nos_3_and_6_Driffield_Terrace_York (accessed March 2021)Google Scholar
Corder, P. 1961: The Roman Town and Villa at Great Casterton Rutland: Third Report for the Years 1954–1958, NottinghamGoogle Scholar
Crerar, B. 2014: Contextualising Deviancy: A Regional Approach to Decapitated Inhumation in Late Roman Britain, unpub. PhD thesis, University of CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Crerar, B. 2016: ‘Deviancy in late Romano-British burial’, in Millett, M., Revell, L. and Moore, A. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Britain, Oxford, 381405Google Scholar
Czarnecka, K. 2013: ‘Das Grab eines Sklavenhändlers? Zum fund eines Vorhängeschlosses aus dem baltischen Gräberfeld von Mojtyny in Masuren’, Archäeologisches Korrespondenzblatt 43, 397407Google Scholar
Déchelette, J. 1913: La Collection Millon: antiquites prehistoriques et gallo-romaines, ParisGoogle Scholar
Duday, H. 2009: The Archaeology of the Dead, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dumont, J.C. 1987: ‘La mort de l'esclave’, in Hinard, F. (ed.), La mort: les morts et l'au-delà dans le monde romain, Caen, 173–86Google Scholar
Duval, S. 2008: ‘La défunte aux entraves: l'inhumation d'une esclave de la fin de l’âge du Fer’, Préhistoires méditerranéennes 14, 114Google Scholar
Dyggve, E. 1928: Recherches a Salone 1, CopenhagenGoogle Scholar
Edmondson, J. 2011: ‘Slavery and the Roman family’, in Bradley, K. and Cartledge, P. (eds), The Cambridge World History of Slavery 1, Cambridge, 337–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eggebrecht, A. 1988: Albanien: Schiitze aus dem Land der Skipetaren, MainzGoogle Scholar
Etani, H. 2010: Pompeii: Report on the Excavations at Porta Capua 1993–2005, KyotoGoogle Scholar
Fitzgerald, W. 2000: Slavery and the Roman Literary Imagination, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galvao-Sobrinho, C.R. 2012: ‘Feasting the dead together: household burial and the social strategies of slaves and freed persons in the early Principate’, in Bell, S. and Ramson, T. (eds), Freed at Last! The Impact of Freed Slaves on the Roman Empire, London, 130–76Google Scholar
Garcia Prosper, E., and Guérin, P. 2002: ‘Nuevas aportaciones en torno a la necropolis romana de la calle quart de Valencia (s. II a. C – IV d. C)’, in Gil, D. (ed.), Espacios y usos funerarios en el Occidente romano: actuas del congreso internacional celebrado en la Facultad de Filosofía y Letra de la Universidad de Córdoba 2001, Cordoba, 203–16Google Scholar
George, M. 2011: ‘Slavery and Roman material culture’, in Bradley, K. and Cartledge, P. (eds), The Cambridge World History of Slavery 1, Cambridge, 385413CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, M. (ed.) 2013a: Roman Slavery and Roman Material Culture, TorontoGoogle Scholar
George, M. 2013b: ‘Cupid punished: reflections on a Roman genre scene’, in George, M. (ed.), Roman Slavery and Roman Material Culture, Toronto, 158–79Google Scholar
Grant, M. 1993: The Emperor Constantine, LondonGoogle Scholar
Grassam, A., and McConnell, D. 2005: Land Adjacent to Great Casterton Primary School, Pickworth Road, Great Casterton, Rutland: Archaeological Excavation: Interim Report, unpub. report, Archaeological Solutions Report 1903, Hertford, https://doi.org/10.5284/1023694 (accessed March 2021)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, C. 2015: ‘Some Roman slave shackles and figurines recorded from Britain by the PAS’, in History, Archaeology, Lectures & Seminars: The Personal Website and Blog of Dr Caitlin Green, https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/02/some-roman-slave-shackles-and-figurines.html (accessed March 2021)Google Scholar
Hall, N. 2013: An Archaeological Watching Brief at Newhaven, Pickworth Road, Great Casterton, unpub. report, University of Leicester Archaeological Services Report SLE4249, LeicesterGoogle Scholar
Hanemann, B. 2014: Die Eisenhortfunde der Pfalz aus dem 4. Jahrhundert nach Christus, Forschungen zur pfälzischen Archäologie 5, SpeyerGoogle Scholar
Harper, K. 2011: Slavery in the Late Roman World A.D. 275–425, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harward, C., Powers, N., and Watson, S. 2015: The Upper Walbrook Valley Cemetery of Roman London, Museum of London Archaeology Monograph 69, LondonGoogle Scholar
Henig, M., and Tomlin, R.S.O. 2008: ‘The sculptural stone’, in Simmonds, A., Marquez-Grant, N. and Loe, L., Life and Death in a Roman City: Excavation of a Roman Cemetery with a Mass Grave at 120–122 London Road, Gloucester, Oxford Archaeology Monograph 6, Oxford, 116–18Google Scholar
Henning, J. 1992: ‘Gefangenenfesseln im slawischen Siedlungsraum und der europaische Sklavenhandel im 6. bis 12 Jahrhundert’, Germania 70.2, 403–26Google Scholar
Henning, J. 2008: ‘Strong rulers, weak economy? Rome, the Carolingians and the archaeology of slavery in the 1st millennium AD’, in Davis, J. and McCormick, M. (eds), The Long Morning of Medieval Europe, Aldershot, 3353Google Scholar
Hillner, J. 2015: Prison Punishment and Penance in Late Antiquity, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hingley, R. 2006: ‘The deposition of iron objects in Britain during the later prehistoric and Roman periods: contextual analysis and the significance of iron’, Britannia 37, 213–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hope, V.M. 2000: ‘Contempt and respect: the treatment of the corpse in ancient Rome’, in Hope, V.M. and Marshall, E. (eds), Death and Disease in the Ancient City, London, 104–27Google Scholar
Howe, M.D., Perrin, J.R., and Mackreth, D.F. 1980: Roman Pottery from the Nene Valley: A Guide, Peterborough City Museum Occasional Paper 2, PeterboroughGoogle Scholar
Hull, M.R. 1958: Roman Colchester, LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, O.J. 2017: ‘Context, continuity, correspondence, and continental connections: new approaches to the ironwork hoards of Roman Britain’, Archaeological Journal 174.2, 363408CrossRefGoogle Scholar
İşcan, M., Loth, S., and Wright, R. 1984: ‘Metamorphosis at the sternal rib end: a new method to estimate age at death in white malesAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology 65.2, 147–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, R. 2005: ‘Roman bound captives: symbols of slavery?’, in Crummy, N. (ed.), Image, Craft and the Classical World: Essays in Honour of Donald Bailey and Catherine Johns, Monographies Instrumentum 29, Montagnac, 143–56Google Scholar
Jones, C.P. 1987: ‘Stigma: tattooing and branding in Graeco-Roman antiquity’, Journal of Roman Studies 77, 139–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joshel, S.R., and Petersen, L.H. 2014: The Material Life of Roman Slaves, New YorkCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knapp, R. 2011: Invisible Romans, LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kucharski, J. 2015: ‘Capital punishment in Classical Athens’, Scripta Classica 12, 1328Google Scholar
Kunzl, E. 1993: ‘Schlösser und Fesseln’, in Kunzl, E. (ed.), Die Alamannenbeute aus dem Rhein bei Neupotz, Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 34, Mainz, 365–78Google Scholar
Lipscomb, A., Thomas, E., and Johnston, R. 1976: ‘Treatment of myositis ossificans traumatica in athletes’, American Journal of Sports Medicine 4.3, 111–20CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Logothetis, K. 2014: ‘Heroes and outcasts: group burials in Classical Greek antiquity’, Archaeology Wiki, https://www.archaeology.wiki/blog/2014/04/28/heroes-and-outcasts/ (accessed March 2021)Google Scholar
Lovejoy, C., Meindl, R., Pryzbeck, T., and Mensforth, R. 1985: ‘Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: a new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at deathAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology 68.1, 1528CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manning, W.H. 1972: ‘Ironwork hoards in Iron Age and Roman Britain’, Britannia 3, 224–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manning, W.H. 1985: Catalogue of the Romano-British Iron Tools, Fittings and Weapons in the British Museum, LondonGoogle Scholar
Marshall, M. 2018: Roman Small Finds, Glass and Leather from Excavations at the Broadgate Ticket Hall Site, Liverpool Street, unpub. report, Museum of London Archaeology Report, London, https://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-3331-1/dissemination/reports/XSM10_rregrep01.pdf (accessed March 2021)Google Scholar
Milella, M., Mariotte, V., Belecastro, M.G., and Knüssel, C.J. 2015: ‘Patterns of irregular burials in western Europe (1st–5th century A.D.)’, PLOS ONE 10.6, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130616 (accessed March 2021)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millar, F. 1984: ‘Condemnation to hard labour in the Roman Empire from the Julio-Claudians to Constantine’, Papers of the British School in Rome 39, 124–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, J., Knüsel, C., and Tucker, K. 2011: ‘Identifying the origins of decapitated male skeletons from 3 Driffield Terrace, York through isotope analysis: reflections of the cosmopolitan nature of Roman York in the time of Caracalla’, in Bonogofsky, M. (ed.), The Bioarchaeology of the Human Head: Decapitation, Decoration and Deformation, Gainesville, 141–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, I. 2011: ‘Archaeology and Greek slavery’, in Bradley, K. and Cartledge, P. (eds), The Cambridge World History of Slavery 1, Cambridge, 176–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortner, D. 2003: Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains, San DiegoGoogle Scholar
Orton, C. 1997: ‘Excavations at the King William IV site, Ewell, 1967–77’, Surrey Archaeological Collections 84, 89122Google Scholar
Parker, A. 2018: ‘The walking dead?’, Roman Magic Blog, https://romanmagic.wordpress.com/?s=walking+dead (accessed March 2021)Google Scholar
Patroni, G. 1922: ‘IV. Remedello Sopra (Brescia)’, Notizie degli Scavi 19, 196–8Google Scholar
Pearce, J. 1999: ‘The dispersed dead: preliminary observations on burial and settlement space in rural Roman Britain’, in P. Baker, C. Forcey, S. Jundi and R. Witcher (eds), TRAC 98: Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, Leicester 1998, Oxford, 151–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearce, J. 2013: Contextual Archaeology of Burial Practice: Case Studies from Roman Britain, British Archaeological Reports British Series 588, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perring, D. 2017: ‘London's Hadrianic War?’, Britannia 48, 3776CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philpott, R. 1991: Burial Practices in Roman Britain: A Survey of Grave Treatment and Furnishing A.D. 43–410, British Archaeological Reports British Series 219, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Quercia, A., and Cazzulo, M. 2016: ‘Fear of the dead: “deviant” burials in Roman northern Italy’, in Mandich, M.J., T.J. Derrick, S.G. Sanchez, G. Savani and E. Zampieri (eds), Proceedings of the 25th Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, Oxford, 28–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ranieri, S., and Telfer, A. 2017: Outside Roman London: Roadside Burials by the Walbrook Stream, Crossrail Archaeology Series 9, LondonGoogle Scholar
Rebillard, E. 2009: The Care of the Dead in Late Antiquity, Ithaca NY and LondonGoogle Scholar
Redfern, R.C. 2018: ‘Blind to chains? The potential of bioarchaeology for identifying the enslaved of Roman Britain’, Britannia 49, 251–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redfern, R.C. 2020: ‘Iron Age predatory landscapes: a bioarchaeological and funerary exploration of captivity and enslavement in Britain’, Cambridge Archaeological Journal 30.4, 531–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redfern, R., and Bonney, H. 2014: ‘Headhunting and amphitheatre combat in Roman London, England: new evidence from the Walbrook valley’, Journal of Archaeological Science 43, 214–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Resnick, D., and Niwayama, G. 1988: Diagnosis of Bone and Joint Disorders 6, PhiladelphiaGoogle Scholar
Revell, L. 2016: Ways of Being Roman: Discourses of Identity in the Roman West, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, C. 2000: ‘Infectious disease in biocultural perspective: past, present and future work, in Britain’, in Cox, M. and Mays, S. (eds), Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science, Cambridge, 145–62Google Scholar
Roberts, C. 2019: ‘Infectious disease: introduction, periostosis, periostitis, osteomyelitis, and septic arthritis’ in Buikstra, J.E. (ed.), Ortner's Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (3rd edition), LondonGoogle Scholar
Roberts, C.A., and Cox, M. 2003: Health and Disease in Britain: From Prehistory to the Present Day, StroudGoogle Scholar
Röder, J. 1957: ‘Die antike Tuffsteinbriiche der Pellenz’, Bonner Jahrbücher 157, 213–71Google Scholar
Roth, U. 2011: ‘Men without hope’, Papers of the British School at Rome 79, 7194CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roymans, N., and Zandstra, M. 2011: ‘Indications for rural slavery in the northern provinces’, in Roymans, N. and Derks, T. (eds), Villa Landscapes in the Roman North: Economy, Culture and Lifestyles, Amsterdam, 161–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samson, R. 1989: ‘Rural slavery, inscriptions, archaeology and Marx: a response to Ramsay Macmullen's “Late Roman slavery”’, Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 38.1, 99110Google Scholar
Samson, R. 1999: ‘Slavish nonsense or the talking tool’, in Leslie, A. (ed.), Theoretical Roman Archaeology and Architecture: The Third Conference Proceedings, Glasgow, 122–40Google Scholar
Schuster, J. 2011: ‘Springhead metalwork’, in Biddulph, E., Seager Smith, R. and Schuster, J., Settling the Ebbsfleet Valley: HS1 Excavations at Springhead and Northfleet, Kent: The Late Iron Age, Roman, Saxon and Medieval Landscape 2: Late Iron Age and Roman Finds Reports, Salisbury, 189291Google Scholar
Schuster, J., Saunders, P., and Algar, D. 2012: ‘Objects of iron’, in Saunders, P. (ed.), Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum Medieval Catalogue: Part 4, Salisbury, 143–99Google Scholar
Sokac-Štimac, D. 1974: ‘Rimska nekropola na Treštanovaćkoj gradini’, Pozeški zbornik 4, 115–40Google Scholar
Sokunbi, G., Fowler, J.R., Ilyas, A.M., and Moyer, R.A. 2010: ‘A case report of myositis ossificans traumatica in the adductor magnus’, Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine 20.6, 495–6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, R.J., and Stone, J.A. 2000: Atlas of Skeletal Muscles, New YorkGoogle Scholar
Suárez de la Torre, E. 2019: ‘The use of rings in the Greek magical papyri’, in Sánchez Natalías, C. (ed.), Litterae Magicae: Studies in Honour of Roger S.O. Tomlin, Zaragoza, 211–32Google Scholar
Taylor, A. 2008: ‘Aspects of deviant burial in Roman Britain’ in Murphy, E.M. (ed.), Deviant Burial in the Archaeological Record, Oxford, 91114Google Scholar
Thompson, H. 1993: ‘Iron Age and Roman slave-shackles’, Archaeological Journal 150.1, 57168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, H. 2003: The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Slavery, Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London 66, LondonGoogle Scholar
Todd, M. 1968: The Roman Fort at Great Casterton Rutland: Excavations of 1960 and 1962, Directed by the Late Sir Ian Richmond and the Late Dr Philip Corder, NottinghamGoogle Scholar
Tomlin, R.S.O. 2003: ‘The girl in question: a new text from Roman London’, Britannia 34, 4150CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomlin, R.S.O. 2008: ‘Paedagogium and septizonium: two Roman lead tablets from Leicester’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 167, 207–18Google Scholar
Tomlin, R.S.O. 2016: Roman London's First Voices: Writing Tablets from the Bloomberg Excavations, 2010–14, Museum of London Archaeology Monograph 72, LondonGoogle Scholar
Triantaphyllou, S., and Bessios, M. 2005: ‘A mass burial at fourth century BC Pydna, Macedonia, Greece: evidence for slavery?Antiquity 79.305 Project Gallery, http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/triantaphyllou305/ (accessed March 2021)Google Scholar
Trimble, J. 2016: ‘The Zoninus collar and the archaeology of Roman slavery’, American Journal of Archaeology 120.3, 447–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tucker, K. 2015: The Archaeology of Decapitation Burials, BarnsleyGoogle Scholar
Wardle, A. 2003: ‘The accessioned finds’, in Cowan, C., Urban Development in North-west Southwark: Excavations 1974–90, Museum of London Archaeology Monograph 16, London, 150–75Google Scholar
Wells, C. 1976: ‘The human burials’ in West, S.E. and Plouviez, J. (eds), The Romano-British Site at Icklingham, East Anglian Archaeology Report 3, Ipswich, 103–19Google Scholar
Webster, J. 2005: ‘Archaeologies of slavery and servitude: bringing “New World” perspectives to Roman Britain’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 18.1, 161–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weston, D.A. 2008: ‘Investigating the specificity of periosteal reactions in pathology museum specimens’, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 137.1, 4859CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wooler, E. 1917: The Roman Fort at Piercebridge, LondonGoogle Scholar