The marshes of the Hongyuan-Ruoergai Plateau in northern Sichuan were visited between 27 May and 10 June 1991 to determine the status there of Black-necked Cranes Grus nigricollis, to investigate reports of threats to their habitat from peat-mining, and to consider options for a protected area for the cranes. Almost 80,000 ha of wetlands in Ruoergai County were surveyed, as well as some of the contiguous wetlands in northern Hongyuan County; 240 Black-necked Cranes and 24 active nests were located. Between 600 and 900 cranes were estimated to be present on the plateau, making this the most important breeding and summering area for the species hitherto known. Neither peatmining nor hunting was judged to pose a threat to the cranes. The principal threat is drainage of habitat for pastureland: overgrazing by domestic livestock is a serious problem on the grasslands, and some drainage of bogs has already occurred in an attempt to increase the area of grazing land. The establishment of a large “crane conservation area” has been proposed, in which there would be no restrictions on the traditional activities of the local tribespeople, but where large-scale drainage, peat-mining and other development activities likely to have a negative impact on the wetlands would be prohibited.

The widespread decline of farmland birds is a major issue of biological conservation in European countries. The Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica is a flagship species for farmland bird conservation owing to its aesthetic and cultural value and to the sharp decline observed in several populations. Based on a long-term monitoring project of a population in a protected area of Northern Italy, we documented a dramatic decline of 56.6% between 1999 and 2011, corresponding to a decrease of 6.59% each year. We also showed that colonies were on average larger in farms with livestock than those without livestock, and that colony size increased with increasing extent of hayfields within 200 m from the colony in farms without livestock, but not in those with livestock. Hayfield extent at greater distances did not influence population size or trend. Cessation of livestock farming therefore determined a decline in local colonies, but this decline may be buffered by an increase in hayfield extent within 200 m from the farm. However, variation in the ecological features of breeding sites explained only a fraction of the observed population decline, suggesting that ecological conditions during migration and wintering may be crucial in affecting population trends. Mean hatching date of first broods advanced in recent years, but less so in farms with, than without, livestock. Independently of year, mean hatching date advanced more in farms with greater extent of hayfields within 200 m of the colony. Reproductive success, measured as the mean number of fledged offspring per nest, declined significantly with hatching date, but was not affected by hayfield extent. Conversely, nestling quality, in terms of body mass and feather development, improved with increasing extent of hayfields around the colony, particularly in late-hatched first clutches. Our findings suggest that conservation strategies for this declining species should include both the maintenance of livestock farming and the enlargement of hayfields close to breeding colonies, particularly in farms where livestock farming has ceased.

The ability of birds to move through the landscape is a key parameter for ecological and conservation studies. We studied bird movements among natural vegetation patches surrounded by native grassland and tested the effect of inter-patch distance on bird movements/hour and assessed the distances travelled for species of different body mass. We made observations of 1,138 bird movements among 11 forest patches and banded 368 birds obtaining 69 recaptures (42 recaptures in the same patch where the birds were banded and 27 recaptures in other patches). We used seven patches as observation points and capture sites in the Pantanal wetland, Brazil during one year. Movements/hour decreased significantly with inter-patch distance. Median or maximum distance travelled increased significantly with body mass. Small-bodied Passeriformes, however, did not increase the distance travelled with body mass, since they seldom moved more than 286 m. The majority of forest dependent or semi-dependent birds seem able to adapt to natural fragmented landscapes. However, small forest patches may be inappropriate habitat for many large-bodied species, and it is more difficult for small-bodied species to use more isolated forest patches. Thus, size and spatial arrangement of habitat patches may act as a filter in which large and close fragments seem to protect the highest number of bird species. The findings of this study indicate that stepping stones provide a viable alternative to continuous biological corridors if the latter are not available. However, the type of species in an area and the size and distance between vegetation patches are all critical factors that must be considered in projects that aim to use forest patches as stepping stones to increase or maintain local bird biodiversity.

Jankowski's Bunting Emberiza jankowskii is endemic to China, Russia and Northern Korea, and was listed as a ‘Vulnerable’ species. The population in Dagang Forestry of western Jilin is one of the small remaining discrete breeding populations in the species' range. Very little information on the nesting biology and population dynamics has previously been published. We studied the nesting biology from 1999 to 2002 and population dynamics of the bunting from 1999 to 2006 (except 2003). A total of 74 nesting attempts were monitored. Jankowski's Bunting breeding season began in late April and usually ended in late July. Both sexes participated in nest-building, feeding young and defending the nest. Mean full clutch size for three years combined was 5.26 ± 0.76 eggs, and ranged from four to seven. Clutch size decreased with nest-initiation date. Mean hatching rate was 41.2%. Overall probability of Mayfield nest success to fledging was low for the three years, averaging 0.218 ± 0.007. The factors leading to low nest success include nest parasitization, nest predation, human activities and nest abandonment. Low survival of Jankowski's Bunting nests may be a factor in declining populations and the slow recovery of populations because of low recruitment at the population and the individual level. The population of Jankowski's Bunting in the Dagang Forestry grassland was small and declined dramatically from 1999 to 2006. The main threat is habitat loss and fragmentation due to agriculture, tree planting and housing following human colonization of the region. The habitat has been reduced in extent by c. 70% since the 1960s. In addition, grazing by domestic livestock dramatically destroyed their preferred vegetation. Furthermore, the restriction to several small, discrete sites makes the bunting inherently vulnerable to catastrophic and stochastic events that can eliminate subpopulations. Jankowski's bunting is one of the most threatened species in China and faces an unpredictable future. Maintaining the structure and general composition of remaining Jankowski's Bunting nesting habitat is important to ensure continued presence of this species in western Jilin and worldwide.

The Upper Mustang region of Nepal holds important breeding populations of Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis. Despite this species being considered ‘Least Concern’ on the IUCN Red List, the population in Upper Mustang had declined substantially in the early to mid-2000s. During that period, the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac was commonly used to treat illness and injury in domesticated ungulates throughout Nepal. The timing and magnitude of declines in Himalayan Griffon in Upper Mustang resemble the declines in resident populations of the ‘Critically Endangered’ White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis and Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris in Nepal, both of which are also known to be highly sensitive to diclofenac. Since 2006, the veterinary use of diclofenac has been banned in Nepal to prevent further vulture declines. In this paper, we analyse the population trend in Himalayan Griffon in Upper Mustang between 2002 and 2014 and show a partial recovery. We conclude that the decline is now occurring at a slower rate than previously observed and immigration from areas where diclofenac was either not or rarely used the probable explanation for the recovery observed.

Ornithological surveys were carried out in the remnant forests of the island of Negros, in the central Philippines, over five weeks in the summer of 1991. From this work it is concluded that, without the implementation of immediate conservation measures, the global extinction of four bird species is likely to occur in the near future. These are Negros Fruit-dove Ptilinopus arcanus, Negros Bleeding-heart Gallicolumba keayi, Writhed-billed Hornbill Aceros waldeni and White-throated Jungle-flycatcher Khinomyias albi-gularis. Another four species restricted to the lowlands of Negros and the adjacent island of Panay, Visayan Tarictic Hornbill Penelopides panini, White-winged Cuckoo-shrike Cora-cina ostenta, Flame-templed Babbler Stachyris speciosa and Visayan Flowerpecker Dicaeum (australe) haematostictum, must be considered under extreme threat, and the endemic Negros Striped-babbler Stachyris nigrorum is under considerable pressure. A further twelve species listed as globally threatened are also in serious danger of extinction on Negros. This paper details the results of fieldwork and presents our conclusions and suggestions for conservation, which must include the direct preservation of the last fragments of lowland forest on the island.

Currently listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the Straw-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus is being driven towards extinction throughout most of its range by unregulated illegal trade supplying the demand for songbirds. We conducted surveys of bird markets in North and West Kalimantan, and Central, West and East Java between July 2014 and June 2015, and observed a total of 71 Straw-headed Bulbuls in 11 markets in eight cities. Comparing our data with the literature, we found that as numbers in markets are decreasing, prices are increasing to over 20 times the prices recorded in 1987, indicating that numbers in the wild are diminishing. This is corroborated by widespread extirpations throughout their range and reports from traders that Straw-headed Bulbuls are increasingly difficult to locate, while demand from consumers remains high. Concerted efforts from a variety of stakeholders are urgently needed to prevent the extinction of this species in the wild. We recommend that the Straw-headed Bulbul be included in Indonesia’s list of protected species, considered for uplisting to Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List and listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). We also urge the Indonesian Government to effectively enforce existing laws, targeting the open bird markets to shut down the trade in this and other threatened species.

To develop conservation strategies for vulnerable seabird species that need attention, it is important to know which factors influence their breeding productivity. Predation of eggs and chicks can have large influences on seabird reproduction, especially when human disturbance facilitates predation. On Dyer Island, Kelp Gulls Larus dominicanus prey on Cape Cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis eggs and chicks, whereas Cape fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus prey on Cape Cormorant fledglings in the waters surrounding the island. Kelp Gulls were estimated to predate 3.8% of the total number of Cape Cormorant eggs and 2.0% of the chicks on the island. These percentages can be expressed as a loss of 4.8% of Cape Cormorant fledglings, which is low compared to the estimated 24.3% mortality of Cape Cormorant fledglings by Cape fur seal predation. Human disturbance facilitated Kelp Gull egg and chick predation and increased the mobbing of cormorant fledglings by Kelp Gulls. Cormorant egg predation by gulls was more frequently reported in the late afternoon. Seal predation was more abundant at the northern side of the island compared to the southern side, was recorded more frequently in the morning, and increased through the breeding season. The altered abundance and distribution of prey, the availability of suitable breeding habitat and mortality from avian cholera, have also influenced the Cape Cormorant’s population size. Hence, the possibility that Cape Cormorants may be locked in a predator-pit, where seals and gulls prevent the population from increasing in size, needs further attention.

Hunting and its associated management have significant costs and benefits for biodiversity conservation, which makes this socio-economic activity highly controversial at both international and regional levels. We investigated relationships between management for small game species (mainly Red-legged Partridges Alectoris rufa and rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus) and both abundance and richness of farmland and scrubland songbirds, raptors and ground-nesting birds, and on the abundance of three species of conservation concern (Little Bustard Tetrax tetrax, Eurasian Thick-knee Burhinus oedicnemus and Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus) in southern Portugal farmland. We compared 12 game estates and 12 matching areas with similar sizes and land uses but no game management. Richness and abundance were estimated from fixed point counts, and were related to game regime (managed or unmanaged), habitat characteristics and census period. Our results showed that game management was associated, albeit weakly, with higher abundance of raptors and ground-nesting birds, but no relationship (either positive or negative) was found for other guilds and species. Habitat was generally the most important factor explaining bird species richness and abundance. Our results suggest possibilities for promoting management systems that could maximize both hunting sustainability and conservation value of managed areas, particularly when management helps to improve or maintain beneficial habitats or practices for farmland birds.

Recent genetic analysis of New Zealand Cyanoramphus parakeets has direct implications for conservation management. A subspecies of Yellow-crowned Parakeet, Forbes's Parakeet C. auriceps forbesi, is genetically distinct from mainland Yellow-crowned Parakeets C. a. auriceps and should be elevated to species status. Even amongst mainland populations of Yellow-crowned Parakeets there was extensive genetic diversity. Interspecific hybridization is a major concern of Cyanoramphus conservation. The near-extinction of Forbes's Parakeets by genetic swamping through hybridization with Chatham Islands Red-crowned Parakeets C. novaezelandiae chathamensis has been averted by active management, involving culling of hybrid and Red-crowned Parakeets and habitat enhancement. Despite two decades of hybridization between these species a distinct Forbes genetic type still exists, probably due to a tendency for hybrids to backcross with Red-crowned Parakeets. Hybridization between Cyanoramphus species may also be a problem in other highly modified habitats, such as parts of the Auckland Islands. More information is needed to determine the extent of this problem. Captive populations include a significant proportion of interspecific hybrids and therefore should not be used as founder stock for releases into the wild, as has been done in the past. The Orange-fronted Parakeet should be reinstated as a separate species, Cyanoramphus malherbi, rather than a colour morph of Yellow-crowned Parakeet, at least until conclusive evidence is available to resolve the question of its taxonomic status. The conservation of this very rare species (and indeed all species of Cyanoramphus)- has been severely handicapped by lack of scientific information on which to base management decisions.

This study presents the first multivariate analysis of hornbill vocalizations and the first bioacoustic study of any Philippine hornbill species. We analyzed loud calls of two Philippine hornbill species, the Rufous-headed Hornbill Aceros waldeni and the Visayan Hornbill Penelopides panini panini, to assess the possibility for their use in individual identification.

Our study showed that individuals of the two studied hornbill species can be identified on the basis of their loud calls, which means that these calls potentially contain information about the caller. Discriminant analysis classified 89% of individual Rufous-headed Hornbills and 90% of individual Visayan Hornbills correctly. The acoustic variables describing the most variation among individual Visayan Hornbills were spectral variables (second amplitude peak) and temporal variables (location of the maximum amplitude and call duration). The calls of individual Rufous-headed Hornbill were differentiated mainly by spectral variables (the fundamental and the first harmonic frequency, and additionally the upper quartile of the frequency range). Frequency parameters in Rufous-headed Hornbill calls were significantly lower than those in Visayan Hornbills. The use of acoustic monitoring of individuals as a non-invasive marking technique could help to monitor hornbill individual life history and to improve census data using capture-mark-recapture technique.

Reintroduction and restocking programmes are conservation tools which may be employed when a wild population is otherwise beyond recovery. The decision to undertake such programmes should be based on a series of “feasibility” assessments (e.g. the bird's ecology, current threats, suitability of available stock and regional human socioeconomic implications). Releases should only take place when the habitat is capable of sustaining a viable population and the original constraining factors no longer operate. Releasing birds into near-saturated areas may be harmful and should be avoided. Local, national and international support for the programme should be secured. The birds should be of optimal quality in terms of behaviour, health and genetics and they should be reared, released and monitoring according to sound strategies and criteria. Assessment and adjustments of the programme should periodically be made after initial releases. Documentation of the programme should be circulated and/or published.

Tricolored Blackbird Agelaius tricolor is a rapidly declining species largely endemic to California and forms larger breeding colonies than any other extant North American landbird following the extinction of Passenger Pigeon Ectopistes migratorius. We present information on its distribution, breeding habitat and changes in global population size using data collected since the 1930s. We also present data on reproductive success at 103 colonies between 1992 and 2003. While possibly once the most abundant bird throughout much of its range, it declined by over 50% between the 1930s and early 1990s, and by a further c. 56% between 1994 and 2000. The global population is now smaller than the historic size of some individual breeding colonies. Reproductive success was significantly higher in upland non-native vegetation (primarily Himalayan blackberry Rubus discolor) than in native emergent cattail Typha spp. and bulrush Scirpus spp. marshes, its likely predominant historic breeding habitat. Contemporary losses of important upland nesting substrate, combined with low reproductive success in native habitats and complete breeding failure in harvested agricultural fields, are the most likely causes of recent declines. Recovery of this species presents possible conflicts in conservation policy because successful reproduction now largely depends on invasive non-native plants and the willingness of farmers to delay harvest or to lose portions of their crops.

Dog predation has been cited as an important factor in the decline of the threatened Kagu of New Caledonia but direct evidence of predation was restricted to single kills. Here we report the first documented case of multiple Kagu deaths caused by dogs, which occurred at our 200 ha, high-altitude (800-1,300 m) study site on Pic Ningua. The deaths were discovered because we were radio-tracking Kagus there as part of our behavioural study on the birds. In 1993 we found 20 Kagus either dead (15) or wounded (5; one survived) from dog attacks in four distinct episodes over a 14-week period from late April to early August. Two other birds whose older remains were found also probably died from dog attacks. Of the 22 birds 18 wore radio transmitters; the four non-radio-tracked birds were found by chance. Dogs errant from a nearby tribal village were strongly implicated in carrying out most, if not all, of the attacks. They climbed around 1,000 m in altitude to reach the study site and attacked birds there on repeat visits to the site. The apparent recent disappearance of Kagus in forest neighbouring the study site suggests the dogs caused the deaths of most of the birds on the peak. Dog predation is probably an ongoing problem for the Kagu and the attacks at Pic Ningua are probably not an isolated incident. Protecting birds outside Riviere Bleue Park from dogs will require: (1) establishment of additional intensively managed reserves; (2) continuing education of the public and administrators about the need for Kagu protection and associated dog control; (3) involvement of tribal communities in Kagu conservation; and (4) enforcement of dog control laws. The events at Pic Ningua demonstrate the necessity for additional and non-connected reserves to safeguard against catastrophes and increase the probability of long-term Kagu persistence in the wild.

Stable isotopes (δD, δ13C, δ15N) were measured in adult and juvenile Amur Falcon Falco amurensis feathers to understand the migratory connectivity of this species. Using the OIPC (Online Isotopes in Precipitation Calculator) and a calibration curve for American Kestrels Falco sparverius we predicted the breeding range of South African Amur Falcons in the Palaearctic. δD values for juvenile feathers (mean ± SE = -58.1 ± 2.5‰, range -83.9 to -25.7‰) and predicted Palaearctic annual precipitation values indicated that juvenile Amur Falcons in South Africa originated from across their entire Palaearctic range. This rejects the leapfrog migration hypothesis and suggests the widespread movement of birds south, with a funnelling effect into the subregion where they become concentrated over a narrower distribution range. Adult δDf values were more depleted (-37.4 ± 1.8‰, range = -71.3 to -9.3‰) than predicted annual precipitation values for sites where feathers moulted in South Africa (-20.2 ± 0.9‰) but there was no correlation between δDp and δDf. This, together with significant variation of δ13C among sites and annual fluctuations in roost sizes, suggests that roost site fidelity is low in the overwintering range. Populations not confined to breeding sites in South Africa are able to move widely across the subregion, feeding on a broad range of arthropods that become seasonally abundant during the austral summer. Total population estimates for South Africa are significantly lower than global estimates so a significant proportion of the population may not overwinter in South Africa or global populations are significantly lower than estimated. In South Africa, roosts that number hundreds to thousands of individuals are often in large exotic trees, e.g. Eucalyptus sp. They are often tolerant of disturbance at roosts which may be of little concern for their conservation. Habitat changes in the overwintering range in South Africa though, particularly due to agriculture, afforestation and strip mining, may affect global population numbers. There is also concern over the persecution of birds along their migratory route.

We tested the hypothesis that endemic bird species of the Brazilian Atlantic forest are more sensitive to forest fragmentation than non-endemics in a fragmented landscape in northern Paraná state of southern Brazil. Levels of sensitivity (high, medium, and low) were previously determined in the landscape based on the occurrences of bird species in 14 forest fragments. We evaluated 112 forest bird species and found that endemic species were more sensitive than non-endemics. Among the endemic species, highly sensitive species tended to have smaller geographic ranges. In a second analysis, we determined that birds at the edges of their geographic ranges in northern Paraná were more vulnerable to forest fragmentation. Combining both factors we found that endemic birds at the edge of their ranges were the most sensitive to fragmentation. Our results suggest that endemics and species at the edges of larger ranges might need larger tracts to ensure their continued existence within that region. Our results, however, also indicate that even small forest fragments may have considerable value for non-endemics and for species closer to the centres of their ranges.

The Norfolk Island Boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae undulata is confined to the small, isolated Norfolk Island group, an Australian territory. On morphological and biogeographical grounds, it is here classified as a large, distinctive subspecies of the New Zealand Morepork N. novaeseelandiae. In 1986 only one specimen, a female, survived. A shortage of large trees with suitable nesting holes appeared to be the immediate problem. The Australian Nature Conservation Agency, islanders and New Zealand wildlife authorities have cooperated in an attempt to re-establish an owl population in situ. Nest-boxes were erected in trees in the area frequented by the female and were used readily as roosts. In September 1987, two male New Zealand Moreporks were introduced. The female paired with one male and produced four hybrid F offspring (in 1989 and 1990). Two of these paired in mid-1991 and have since produced five F offspring (two in 1993 and three in 1994). The original female remains paired but now appears to be reproductively senile. At present there seems to be a shortage of mature males, since two female offspring are paired and both lay eggs and attempt to incubate them in the same nest; and a lone female has established a territory. In early 1995 all eleven owls appeared to be alive in the wild. The effort is low-cost, requires relatively little manpower, is carried out with minimal disturbance to the owls, and goes hand in hand with other conservation programmes.

Understanding habitat requirements is vital for developing successful management strategies for threatened species. In this study we analyse the habitat selection of two globally threatened waterbirds (Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris and White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala) coexisting in an internationally important wetland (El Hondo Natural Park, south-eastern Spain) at three spatial scales. We surveyed adults and broods of these species fortnightly during two consecutive years and we related density and presence of birds to several habitat variables. At a pond-selection scale, the density of both species was related to the surface area of the ponds, with Marbled Teal showing avoidance of medium-sized ponds, and White-headed Ducks strong selection for the largest ponds. Within ponds, Marbled Teal avoided open waters, and was mainly associated with Phragmites reedbeds, but also selected areas with saltmarsh and Scirpus vegetation, especially for brood-rearing. White-headed Duck made more use of deeper areas with open water, especially in winter, and Phragmites was the only emergent vegetation with which it associated. When breeding success was very high in 2000, strong creching of broods was observed in White-headed Duck, but not in Marbled Teal. In order to provide suitable habitat for both species, there is a need to maintain spatial diversity with a combination of large wetlands suitable for both species and small, vegetated ones suitable for the Marbled Teal.

Specially trained dogs are used to locate many threatened bird species in New Zealand during conservation management and research projects. Systematic searches were made in four forest patches in Northland where many Brown Kiwi Apteryx mantelli had been fitted with bands, wing tags, transponders or radio-transmitters over a 12-year period of experimental management. The percentage of subadult birds found by dogs increased in line with predictions from population models of the changing age structure of the population. The dogs independently found radio-tagged adults and subadults in close proportion to their known abundance. Dogs proved to be an excellent tool to determine the age structure of a kiwi population. With knowledge of the life history of the species involved, this information was used to make an accurate assessment of the conservation status of the study population of Brown Kiwi in Northland. Our results also support the recent downgrading of Little Spotted Kiwi Apteryx owenii from ‘Vulnerable’ to ‘Near Threatened’, which was based partly on healthy age ratios found during dog searches on Kapiti Island, rather than on results from a study of their breeding biology on the island which showed unsustainably low chick recruitment.

An important component of many conservation studies is the assessment of bird-habitat relationships, but limited resources often lead to constraints on study design, quality and quantity of bird data, and restrict the number and types of habitat variables gathered. The aim of this study was to identify habitat features that were both relatively easy and quick to collect and powerful in identifying bird-habitat relationships. We also discuss some issues with our study and alternative approaches that may help in future bird-habitat studies in tropical forests. Twenty-four habitat measures representing geographical (e.g. altitude, topography, X and Y coordinates), vegetation structure (e.g. tree sizes), and tree floristics (abundance of 28 indicator tree species) features were collected in association with bird presence/absence data from point transects within a 1,500 ha Philippine lowland forest. We used hierarchical partitioning of regression analyses to assess which of these geographical and structural variables along with four floristics axes derived from DECORANA were the most important variables for explaining the occurrence of individual bird species and guilds. The ten most powerful variables for a range of bird species included seven geographical and three floristic variables, while the ten least important were all structural variables. There were differences in importance of individual variables across guilds, with, for example, floristics very important in canopy frugivores, and geographical variables more important for upperstorey gleaning insectivores. We stress the importance of geographical variables in linking birds to habitat at this local scale, but also suggest that efforts are made to collect some floristics data, perhaps a subset of species that represent resources for birds (e.g. Ficus spp.), people's use of the forest (e.g. dipterocarps), and indicators of forest type. While the habitat variables and approach in this study adequately identified bird-habitat relationships for most species, we suggest improvements and alternative methods that may improve results in other studies.