Hostname: page-component-669899f699-qzcqf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-25T13:10:08.506Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Nailing Down Metaphors in CBT: Definition, Identification and Frequency

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 July 2015

Fiona Mathieson ,
Jennifer Jordan ,
Janet D. Carter  and
Maria Stubbe
Fiona Mathieson*
Affiliation:
University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand
Jennifer Jordan
Affiliation:
University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
Janet D. Carter
Affiliation:
University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
Maria Stubbe
Affiliation:
University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand
*
Reprint requests to Fiona Mathieson, Department of Psychological Medicine, University of Otago, Wellington, School of Medicine and Health Sciences PO Box 7343, Wellington 6242, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background: Metaphors are common in psychotherapy and have potential to enhance therapy in numerous ways. However, the empirical study of metaphors in cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) has tended to be put in the “too hard basket”, confined to being part of the art rather than the science of therapy. The lack of research is largely due to problems with definition, lack of a consistent, reliable approach to metaphor identification and the challenges of finding appropriate methodology to study this language-based activity. Aims: This study aimed to assess the frequency of metaphors in CBT in a large sample of therapy sessions and to evaluate the reliability and utility of the discourse dynamics approach to metaphor identification. Method: The discourse dynamics approach, recently developed by linguists, was used to identify metaphors in 48 CBT session transcripts (from 12 clients and 3 therapists) and the reliability of this approach was evaluated, using an independent rater. Results: The total frequency of metaphors was 31.5 (range 17–49) per 1000 words of therapy conversation. Therapists produced metaphors twice as often (21.2, range 7–36) as clients (10.3, range 3–24). Reliability of the Discourse Dynamics approach was adequate. Conclusions: Metaphors clearly occur in CBT sessions, with therapists using them at a higher rate than clients. While Discourse Dynamics is currently the most detailed identification approach available for investigating metaphor in CBT sessions, it is challenging to acquire skill in it and we found only adequate reliability. Ways to improve reliability and future research possibilities are discussed.

Keywords

Metaphormetaphor identificationcognitive behaviour therapydiscourse dynamics
Type
Research Article
Information
Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy , Volume 44 , Issue 2 , March 2016 , pp. 236 - 248
Copyright
Copyright © British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aihara, K. and Suzuki, H. (2010). Theory of hybrid dynamical systems and its applications to biological and medical systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences, 368 (1930), 4893–4914. doi: doi: 10.1098/rsta.2010.023 Google Scholar
Alford, B. A. and Beck, A. T. (1997). The Integrative Power of Cognitive Therapy. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Barlow, J., Kerlin, J. and Pollio, H. (1971). Training Manual for Identifying Figurative Language. University of Tennessee: Metaphor Research Group.Google Scholar
Beck, A., Rush, A., Shaw, B. and Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive Therapy of Depression. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A. and Brown, G. K. (1987). Beck Depression Inventory (2nd edn.) Manual. Psychological Corporation: Harcourt.Google Scholar
Beck, J. (1995). Cognitive Therapy: basics and beyond. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Blenkiron, P. (2010). Stories and Analogies in Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Burke, K. (1945). A Grammar of Motives. New York: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Cameron, L. (1999). Identifying and describing metaphor in spoken discourse data. In Cameron, L. and Low, G. (Eds.), Researching and Applying Metaphor (pp. 105–132). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cameron, L. (2003). Metaphor in Educational Discourse. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Cameron, L. (2007). Patterns of metaphor use in reconciliation talk. Discourse and Society, 18, 197–222. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0957926507073376 Google Scholar
Cameron, L. (2008a). Metaphor and talk. In Gibbs, R. W. (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought (pp. 197–211). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, L. (2008b). Metaphor shifting in the dynamics of talk. In Zanotto, M., Cameron, L. and Cavalcanti, M. (Eds.), Confronting Metaphor in Use: an applied linguistic approach (pp. 45–62). Amsterdam: Benjamins.Google Scholar
Cameron, L. and Deignan, A. (2006). The emergence of metaphor in discourse. Applied Linguistics, 27, 671–690. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/aml032 Google Scholar
Cameron, L. and Maslen, R. (2010). Metaphor Analysis: research practice in applied linguistics, social sciences and the humanities. London: Equinox Publishing.Google Scholar
Cameron, L., Maslen, R., Todd, Z., Maule, J., Stratton, P. and Stanley, N. (2009). The discourse dynamics approach to metaphor and metaphor-led discourse analysis. Metaphor and Symbol, 24, 63–89. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10926480902830821 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferrara, K. W. (1994). Therapeutic Ways with Words. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Foster, N. (2011). An Investigation of Early Sudden Gains in Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Depression: client and within-therapy predictors of change (PhD). Auckland, New Zealand: Massey University.Google Scholar
Gibbs, R. and Franks, H. (2002). Embodied metaphor in women's narratives about their experiences with cancer. Health Communication, 14, 139–165.Google Scholar
Gibbs, R. and Nascimento, S. (1996). How we talk when we talk about love: metaphorical concepts and understanding love poetry. In Kreuz, R.J. and MacNealy, M.S., Empirical Approaches to Literature and Aesthetics (pp. 291–307). Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing.Google Scholar
Goncalves, O. F. and Craine, M. H. (1990). The use of metaphors in cognitive therapy. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 4, 135–149.Google Scholar
Harnett, P., O'Donovan, A. and Lambert, M. J. (2010). The dose response relationship in psychotherapy: implications for social policy. Clinical Psychologist, 14, 39–44. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13284207.2010.500309 Google Scholar
Hill, C. and Regan, A. (1991). The use of metaphors in one case of brief psychotherapy. Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy, 10, 56–57.Google Scholar
Illardi, S. S. and Craighead, W. E. (1994). The role of nonspecific factors in cognitive-behavior therapy for depression. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 1, 138–155. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2850.1994.tb00016.x Google Scholar
Kuyken, W., Padesky, C. A. and Dudley, R. (2009). Collaborative Case Conceptualization: working effectively with clients in cognitive-behavioral therapy. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lakoff, G. (1993). The contemporary theory of metaphor. In Ortony, A. (Ed.), Metaphor and Thought (2nd ed., pp. 202–251). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Linehan, M. (1993). Cognitive Behavioral Therapy of Borderline Personality Disorder. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Luty, S. E., Carter, J. D., McKenzie, J. M., Rae, A. M., Frampton, C. M. A., Mulder, R. T., et al. (2007). Randomised controlled trial of interpersonal psychotherapy and cognitive behavioural therapy for depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 496–502. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.106.024729 Google Scholar
Martin, J., Cummings, A. L. and Hallberg, E. T. (1992). Therapists' intentional use of metaphor: memorability, clinical impact, and possible epistemic/motivational functions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 143–145. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.60.1.143 Google Scholar
McMullen, L. M. (1985). Methods for studying the use of novel figurative language in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 22, 610–619.Google Scholar
National Geographic Learning (Ed.) (2013). Collins Cobuild Advanced Dictionary of English (7th ed.) Boston, MA: National Geographic Learning.Google Scholar
Padesky, C. A. and Mooney, K. A. (2012). Strengths-based cognitive-behavioural therapy: a four-step model to build resilience. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 19, 283–290. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1795 Google Scholar
Pfaff, K. L., Gibbs, R. W. Jr. and Johnson, M. D. (1997). Metaphor in using and understanding euphemism and dysphemism. Applied Psycholinguistics, 18, 59–83. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400009875 Google Scholar
Pollio, H. and Barlow, J. (1975). A behavorial analysis of figurative language in psychotherapy: one session in a single case study. Language and Speech, 18, 136–154.Google Scholar
Pragglejaz Group (2007). MIP: a method for identifying metaphorically used words in discourse. Metaphor and Symbol, 22, 1–40.Google Scholar
Ronen, T. (2011). The Positive Power of Imagery: harnessing client imagination in CBT and related therapies. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Shell, J. (1986). A Hermaneutic Analysis of Metaphor in a Successful Case of Psychotherapy. University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.Google Scholar
Soskice, J. (1985). Metaphor and Religious Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Steen, G.J., Dorst, A.G., Berenike Herrman, J., Kaal, A.A., Krennmayr, T. and Pasma, T. (2010). A Method for Linguistic Metaphor Identification. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Steen, G., Dorst, A., Herrmann, J., Kaal, A. and Krennmayr, T. (2010). Metaphor in usage. Cognitive Linguistics, 21, 765–796.Google Scholar
Stoddard, J. and Afari, N. (2014). The Big Book of ACT Metaphors: a practitioner's guide to experiential exercises and metaphors in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.Google Scholar
Stott, R., Mansell, W., Salkovskis, P., Lavender, A. and Cartwright-Hatton, S. (Eds). (2010). Oxford Guide to Metaphors in CBT: building cognitive bridges. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Todd, Z. and Low, G. (2010). A selective survey of research practice in published studies using metaphor analysis. In Cameron, L. and Maslen, R. (Eds.), Metaphor Analysis: research practice in applied linguistics, social sciences and the humanities (pp. 26–41). London: Equinox Publishing Ltd.Google Scholar
van der Vliet, N., Bouma, G. and Redeker, G. (2013). The Automatic Identification of Discourse Units in Dutch Text. Paper presented at the 19th Nordic Conference of Computational Linguistics, Oslo, Norway.Google Scholar
Witztum, E., van der Hart, O. and Friedman, B. (1988). The use of metaphors in psychotherapy. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 18, 270–290. doi: 10.1007/BF00946010 Google Scholar
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.