Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-04T21:54:59.566Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Childhood Fears and Anxiety Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 October 2014

Neville J. King*
Affiliation:
Monash University
Eleonora Gullone
Affiliation:
Victoria College
Bruce J. Tonge
Affiliation:
Monash Medical Centre
*
Faculty of Education, School of Graduate Studies, Monash University, Clayton, Vic. 3168
Get access

Abstract

Despite their significance, childhood anxiety disorders, compared to those of adults, have been neglected by researchers. However, recent years have witnessed increasing research on childhood anxiety disorders. Normative and developmental aspects of fear and anxiety are briefly discussed and we examine the classification and diagnostic reliability of childhood anxiety disorders. In relation to assessment, we focus on some recent research developments on self-report instruments and behavioural avoidance tests. An integrative behavioural treatment model is presented in which the need for age-appropriate intervention is emphasised. Also, data on the social validity of fear reduction procedures are presented. Finally, we outline several directions for future research.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 1991

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Anderson, J.C., Williams, S., McGee, R., & Silva, P.A. (1987). DSM-III disorders in preadolescent children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 6976.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A., Grusec, J., & Menlove, F. (1967). Vicarious extinction of avoidance behavior. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 5, 1623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berg, I., Butler, A., & Hall, G. (1976). The outcome of adolescent school phobia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 128, 8085.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, G.A., & Garfinkel, B.D. (1986). School phobia: The overlap of affective and anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 235241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, G.A., & Garfinkel, B.D. (1988). Pedigrees, functioning and psychopathology in families of school phobic children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 7074.Google ScholarPubMed
Casat, C.D. (1988). Childhood anxiety disorders: A review of the possible relationship to adult panic disorder and agoraphobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 2, 5160.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1963). The analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy. Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 10, London: Hogarth Press (Original work published in 1909).Google Scholar
Gittelman, R. (1985). Anxiety disorders in children. In Lahey, B.B. & Kazdin, A.E. (Eds.), Advances in Clinical Child Psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 5379). New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Goodenough, F.L., & Harris, D.B. (1963). Goode-nough-Harris Drawing Test. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Graziano, A.M. (1975). Reduction of children's fears. In Graziano, A.M. (Ed.), Behavior therapy with children (Vol. 2, pp. 283290). Chicago: Aldine.Google Scholar
Graziano, A., De Giovanni, I.S., & Garcia, K.A. (1979). Behavioral treatment of children's fears: a review. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 804830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gullone, E., & King, N.J. (1988, 08–September). Acceptability of alternative treatments for school phobia. Paper presented at the XXIV International Congress of Psychology, Sydney, NSW.Google Scholar
Gullone, E., & King, N.J. (1989). Acceptability of behavioral interventions: Child and caregiver perceptions. In Hersen, M., Eisler, R., & Miller, P.M. (Eds), Progress in Behavior Modification (Vol. 24, pp. 132151). Newbury Park, CA.: Sage.Google Scholar
Gullone, E., & King, N.J. (1990, 09). Psychometric evaluation of a revised fear survey schedule for children and adolescents. Paper presented at the Silver Jubilee Conference of The Australian Psychological Society, Melbourne, Victoria.Google Scholar
Hamilton, D.I., & King, N.J. (1990, 07). Assessing behavioural avoidance in phobic children: Reliability, validity and consumer satisfaction of the behavioural avoidance test. Paper presented at the 13th National Conference of the Australian Behaviour Modification Association, Melbourne.Google Scholar
Harms, E. (1967). Origins of Modern Psychiatry. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.Google Scholar
Harris, S.L., & Ferrari, M. (1983). Developmental factors in child behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy, 14, 5472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hersen, M., & Bellack, A.S. (1988). Dictionary of Behavioral Assessment Techniques. New York: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Jackson, H.J., & King, N.J. (1981). The emotive imagery treatment of a child's trauma-induced phobia. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 12, 325328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, H.J., & King, N.J. (1982). The therapeutic management of an autistic child's phobia using laughter as the anxiety inhibitor. Behavioural Psychotherapy, 10, 364369.Google Scholar
Jones, M.C. (1924). Elimination of children's fears. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 7, 382390.Google Scholar
Kazdin, A.E. (1980). Acceptability of time out from reinforcement procedures for disruptive child behavior. Behavior Therapy, 11, 329344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, N.J., Cranstoun, F., & Josephs, A. (1989). Emotive imagery and children's night-time fears: A multiple baseline design evaluation. Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 20, 125135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, N.J., & Gullone, E. (1990). Acceptability of fear reduction procedures with children. Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 21, 18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, N.J., Hamilton, D.I., & Ollendick, T.H. (1988). Children's Phobias: A Behavioural Perspective. Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
King, N.J., & Ollendick, T.H. (1989). Children's anxiety and phobic disorders in school settings: Classification, assessment and intervention issues. Review of Educational Research, 59, 531–470.Google Scholar
King, N.J., Ollier, K., Iacuone, R., Schuster, S., Bays, K., Gullone, E., & Ollendick, T.H. (1989). Fears of children and adolescents: A cross-sectional Australian study using the revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 30, 775784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, D.F., & Fink, M. (1962). Psychiatric reaction patterns to Imipramine. American Journal of Psychiatry, 119, 432438.Google Scholar
Klein, R.G., & Last, C.G. (1989). Anxiety Disorders in Children. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Last, C.G., Francis, G., & Strauss, C.C. (1989). Assessing fears in anxiety-disordered children with the Revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC-R). Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18, 137141.Google Scholar
Last, C.G., Strauss, C.C., & Francis, G. (1987). Comorbidity among childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 175, 726730.Google Scholar
Lazarus, A.A., & Abramovitz, A. (1962). The use of ‘emotive imagery’ in the treatment of children's phobias. Journal of Mental Science, 108, 191195.Google Scholar
Leitenberg, H., & Callahan, E.J. (1973). Reinforced practice and reduction of different kinds of fears in adults and children. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 11, 1930.Google Scholar
Mezzich, A.C., Mezzich, J.E., Coffman, G.A. (1985). Reliability of DSM-III vs DSM-II in child psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 273280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, L.C.F., Barrett, C.L., Hampe, E., & Noble, H. (1972). Comparison of reciprocal inhibition, psychotherapy and waiting list control of phobic children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 79, 269279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, R.J., & Kratochwill, T.R. (1983). Treating Children's Fears and Phobias. A Behavioral Approach. New York: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Mudford, O.C. (1987). Acceptability of a visual screening procedure for reducing stereotyping in mentally retarded children: Evaluation by New Zealand institutional staff. Behaviour Change, 4, 413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, C.M., & Bootzin, R.R. (1973). Active and passive participation in the contact desensitization of snake fear in children. Behavior Therapy, 4, 203211.Google Scholar
Ollendick, T.H. (1979). Fear reduction techniques with children. In Hersen, M., Eisler, R.M., & Miller, P.M. (Eds.), Progress in Behavior Modification (Vol. 8, pp. 127168). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Ollendick, T.H. (1983). Reliability and validity of the revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC–R). Behaviour Research & Therapy, 21, 685692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ollendick, T.H., & Hersen, M. (Eds.). (1984). Child Behavioral Assessment. Principles and Procedures. New York: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Ollendick, T.H., King, N.J., & Frary, R.B. (1989). Fears in children and adolescents. Reliability and generalizability across gender, age and nationality. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 27, 1926.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ollendick, T.O., Yule, W., & Ollier, K. (1991). Fears in British children and their relationship to manifest anxiety and depression. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 32, 321331.Google Scholar
Rey, J.M., Plapp, J.M., & Stewart, G.W. (1989). Reliability of psychiatric diagnosis in referred adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 30, 879888.Google Scholar
Reynolds, C.R., & Richmond, B.O. (1985). Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) Manual. CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Ronan, K.R., & Kendall, P.C. (1990). Addressing children's phobias. [Review of Children's Phobias: A Behavioural Perspective]. Contemporary Psychology, 35, 113115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenstiel, A.K., & Scott, D.S. (1977). Four considerations in using imagery techniques with children. Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 8, 287290.Google Scholar
Sarason, S.B., Davidson, K.S., Lighthall, F.F., Waite, R.R., & Ruebush, B.K. (1960). Anxiety in Elementary School Children. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Scherer, M.W., & Nakamura, C.Y. (1968). A Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSS–FC): A factor analytic comparison with manifest anxiety (CMAS). Behaviour Research & Therapy, 6, 173182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverman, W.K. (1987). Childhood anxiety disorders: Diagnostic issues, empirical support, and future research. Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychotherapy, 4, 121126.Google Scholar
Slee, P.T., & Cross, D.G. (1989). Living in the nuclear age: An Australian study of children's and adolescents fears. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 19, 270278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spence, H., & Kennedy, E. (1989). Australian data for the Children's Action Tendency Scale, the Children's Depression Inventory and Fear Survey Schedule for Children–revised. The Australia Educational & Developmental Psychologist, 6, 1621.Google Scholar
Spielberger, C.D. (1973). Preliminary Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (‘How I Feel Questionnaire’). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Google Scholar
Strober, M., Green, J., & Carlson, G. (1981). Reliability of psychiatric diagnosis in hospitalized adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 141145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, J.B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werry, J.S., Methven, R.J., Fitzpatrick, J., & Dixon, H. (1983). The interrater reliability of DSM-III in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11, 341354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, J.B.W., & Spitzer, R.L. (1980). Appendix F in American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.) (pp. 467472). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Wolf, M. (1978). Social validity: the case for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 203214.Google Scholar
Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar