Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T11:16:33.385Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Paediatric and Adult Samples: Nature, Treatment and Cognitive Processes. A Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 May 2017

Sharlene C. Mantz  and
Maree J. Abbott
Sharlene C. Mantz
Affiliation:
Clinical Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Maree J. Abbott*
Affiliation:
Clinical Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
*
Address for correspondence: Maree Abbott, Clinical Psychology Unit (M02F), School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

The appraisal model of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) suggests that six key appraisal domains contribute to the aetiology and maintenance of OCD symptoms. An accumulating body of evidence supports this notion and suggests that modifying cognitive appraisals may be beneficial in reducing obsessive-compulsive symptomatology. This literature review first summarises the nature of OCD and its treatment, followed by a summary of the existing correlational and experimental research on the role of cognitive appraisal processes in OCD across both adult and paediatric samples. While correlational data provide some support for the relationship between cognitive appraisal domains and OCD symptoms, results are inconclusive, and experimental methods are warranted to determine the precise causal relationship between specific cognitive appraisal domains and OCD symptoms.

Keywords

obsessive compulsive disorderOCDappraisalscognitive processesresponsibilitythreat
Type
Review Article
Information
Behaviour Change , Volume 34 , Issue 1 , April 2017 , pp. 1 - 34
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abramowitz, J.S. (1997). Effectiveness of psychological and pharmacological treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A quantitative review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abramowitz, J.S., Brigidi, B.D., & Roche, K.R. (2001). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A review of the treatment literature. Research on Social Work Practice, 11, 357–372.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, J.S., Franklin, M.E., & Foa, E.B. (2002). Empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A meta-analytic review. Romanian Journal of Cognitive & Behavioral Psychotherapies, 2, 89–104.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, J.S., Taylor, S., & McKay, D. (2005). Potentials and limitations of cognitive treatments for obsessive‐compulsive disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 34, 140–147.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, J.S., Whiteside, S.P., & Deacon, B.J. (2006). The effectiveness of treatment for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis. Behavior Therapy, 36, 55–63.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, J.S., Whiteside, S.P., Kalsy, S., & Tolin, D. (2003). Thought control strategies in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A replication and extension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 529–540.Google Scholar
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). (1998). Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 27–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.Google Scholar
Amir, N., Freshman, M., Ramsey, B., Neary, E., & Brigidi, B. (2001). Thought–action fusion in individuals with OCD symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 765–776.Google Scholar
Arntz, A., Voncken, M., & Goosen, A.C. (2007). Responsibility and obsessive–compulsive disorder: An experimental test. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 425–435.Google Scholar
Ashbaugh, A.R., & Radomsky, A.S. (2007). Attentional focus during repeated checking influences memory but not metamemory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31, 291–306.Google Scholar
Ball, S.G., Baer, L., & Otto, M.W. (1996). Symptom subtypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder in behavioral treatment studies: A quantitative review. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 47–51.Google Scholar
Barlow, D.H. (2004). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Barrett, P.M., Farrell, L.J., Dadds, M., & Boulter, N. (2005). Cognitive-behavioural family-based treatment for childhood OCD: Long-term treatment outcome and predictors of response. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 1005–1014.Google Scholar
Barrett, P.M., Farrell, L.J., Pina, A.A., Peris, T.S., & Piacentini, J. (2008). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for child and adolescent obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37, 131–155.Google Scholar
Barrett, P.M., & Healy, L.J. (2003). An examination of the cognitive processes involved in childhood obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 285–299.Google Scholar
Barrett, P.M., & Healy-Farrell, L.J. (2003). Perceived responsibility in juvenile obsessive-compulsive disorder: An experimental manipulation. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 430–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrett, P.M., Rapee, R.M., Dadds, M.M., & Ryan, S.M. (1996). Family enhancement of cognitive style in anxious and aggressive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 187–203.Google Scholar
Beck, A., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Belotto-Silva, C., Diniz, J.B., Malavazzi, D.M., Valério, C., Fossaluza, V., Borcato, S., . . . Shavitt, R.G. (2012). Group cognitive-behavioral therapy versus selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A practical clinical trial. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 25–31.Google Scholar
Bloch, M.H., McGuire, J., Landeros-Weisenberger, A., Leckman, J.F., & Pittenger, C. (2010). Meta-analysis of the dose-response relationship of SSRI in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 850–855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boelen, P.A., & Reijntjes, A. (2009). Intolerance of uncertainty and social anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 130–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bögels, S.M., & Zigterman, D. (2000). Dysfunctional cognitions in children with social phobia, separation anxiety disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 205–211.Google Scholar
Bolton, D., Dearsley, P., Madronal‐Luque, R., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2002). Magical thinking in childhood and adolescence: Development and relation to obsessive compulsion. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 20, 479–494.Google Scholar
Boschen, M.J., & Drummond, L.M. (2012). Community treatment of severe, refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50, 203–209.Google Scholar
Bouchard, C., Rhéaume, J., & Ladouceur, R. (1999). Responsibility and perfectionism in OCD: An experimental study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 239–248.Google Scholar
Brakoulias, V., Starcevic, V., Berle, D., Milicevic, D., Hannan, A., & Martin, A. (2014). The relationships between obsessive–compulsive symptom dimensions and cognitions in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Psychiatric Quarterly, 85, 133–142.Google Scholar
Calleo, J.S., Hart, J., Björgvinsson, T., & Stanley, M.A. (2010). Obsessions and worry beliefs in an inpatient OCD population. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 903–908.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, A.T. (1974). Compulsive neurosis: A review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 311–318.Google Scholar
Cartwright-Hatton, S., & Wells, A. (1997). Beliefs about worry and intrusions: The Meta-Cognitions Questionnaire and its correlates. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11, 279–296.Google Scholar
Chansky, T.E. (2004). Freeing your child from anxiety: Powerful, practical strategies to overcome your child's fears, phobias, and worries. New York, NY: Harmony Books.Google Scholar
Clark, D.A. (2004). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for OCD. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Clark, D.A., & Purdon, C. (1993). New perspectives for a cognitive theory of obsessions. Australian Psychologist, 28, 161–167.Google Scholar
Coles, M.E., Frost, R.O., Heimberg, R.G., & Rhéaume, J. (2003). ‘Not just right experiences’: Perfectionism, obsessive–compulsive features and general psychopathology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 681–700.Google Scholar
Coles, M.E., Radomsky, A.S., & Horng, B. (2006). Exploring the boundaries of memory distrust from repeated checking: Increasing external validity and examining thresholds. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 995–1006.Google Scholar
Coles, M.E., Ravid, A., Franklin, M.E., Storch, E.A., & Khanna, M. (2014). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms and beliefs in adolescents: A cross-sectional examination of cognitive models. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 28, 251–263.Google Scholar
Cook, E.H., Wagner, K.D., March, J.S., Biederman, J., Landau, P., Wolkow, R., & Messig, M. (2001). Long-term sertraline treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1175–1181.Google Scholar
Costello, E.J., Angold, A., Burns, B.J., Stangl, D.K., Tweed, D.L., Erkanli, A., & Worthman, C.M. (1996). The great smoky mountains study of youth: Goals, design, methods, and the prevalence of DSM-III-R disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 1129–1136.Google Scholar
Creswell, C., Schniering, C.A., & Rapee, R.M. (2005). Threat interpretation in anxious children and their mothers: Comparison with nonclinical children and the effects of treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1375–1381.Google Scholar
Cucchi, M., Bottelli, V., Cavadini, D., Ricci, L., Conca, V., Ronchi, P., & Smeraldi, E. (2012). An explorative study on metacognition in obsessive-compulsive disorder and panic disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53, 546–553.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Silva, (2003). The phenomenology of obsessive-compulsive disorder. In Menzies, R.G. & de Silva, P. (Eds.), Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 21–36). Hokoben, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Deacon, B.J., & Abramowitz, J.S. (2004). Cognitive and behavioral treatments for anxiety disorders: A review of meta‐analytic findings. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 429–441.Google Scholar
Dougherty, D.D., Rauch, S.L., & Jenike, M.A. (2004). Pharmacotherapy for obsessive‐compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1195–1202.Google Scholar
Douglass, H.M., Moffitt, T.E., Dar, R., McGee, R., & Silva, P. (1995). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in a birth cohort of 18-year-olds: Prevalence and predictors. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1424–1431.Google Scholar
Dugas, M.J., Buhr, K., & Ladouceur, R. (2004). The role of intolerance of uncertainty in the etiology and maintenance of generalized anxiety disorder. In Heimberg, R.G., Turk, C.L., & Mennin, D.S. (Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice (pp. 143–163). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Dugas, M.J., Gosselin, P., & Ladouceur, R. (2001). Intolerance of uncertainty and worry: Investigating specificity in a nonclinical sample. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 551–558.Google Scholar
DuPont, R.L., Rice, D., Shiraki, S., & Rowland, C. (1995). Economic costs of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Medical Interface, 8, 102–109.Google Scholar
Eddy, K.T., Dutra, L., Bradley, R., & Westen, D. (2004). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 1011–1030.Google Scholar
Emmelkamp, P.M., & Aardema, A. (1999). Metacognition, specific obsessive compulsive beliefs and obsessive compulsive behaviour. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 6, 139–145.Google Scholar
Evans, D.W., Milanak, M.E., Medeiros, B., & Ross, J.L. (2002). Magical beliefs and rituals in young children. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 33, 43–58.Google Scholar
Exner, C., Zetsche, U., Lincoln, T.M., & Rief, W. (2014). Imminent danger? Probabilistic classification learning of threat-related information in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavior Therapy, 45, 157–167.Google Scholar
Fama, J., & Wilhelm, S. (2005). Formal cognitive therapy: A new treatment for OCD. In Abramowitz, J.S. & Houts, A.C. (Eds.), Concepts and controversies in obsessive-compulsive disorder (pp. 263–281). New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar
Farrell, L.J., & Barrett, P.M. (2006). Obsessive‐compulsive disorder across developmental trajectory: Cognitive processing of threat in children, adolescents and adults. British Journal of Psychology, 97, 95–114.Google Scholar
Farrell, L.J., Hourigan, D., Waters, A.M., & Harrington, M.R. (2015). Threat interpretation bias in children with obsessive-compulsive disorder: Examining maternal influences. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 29, 230–252.Google Scholar
Farrell, L.J., Waters, A.M., Boschen, M.J., & Milliner, E.L. (2011). Responsibility beliefs, memory confidence, intolerance of uncertainty and the urge to check in childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder: An examination of cognitive theory. Behaviour Change, 28, 128–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrell, L.J., Waters, A.M., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M.J. (2012). Cognitive biases and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in children: Examining the role of maternal cognitive bias and child age. Behavior Therapy, 43, 593–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergus, T.A., & Wu, K.D. (2010). Do symptoms of generalized anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorder share cognitive processes? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34, 168–176.Google Scholar
Ferrari, J.R. (1995). Perfectionism cognitions with nonclinical and clinical samples. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10, 143–156.Google Scholar
Fineberg, N.A., Brown, A., Reghunandanan, S., & Pampaloni, I. (2012). Evidence-based pharmacotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Journal of Neuro-Psychopharmacology, 15, 1173.Google Scholar
Fisher, P.L., & Wells, A. (2005). How effective are cognitive and behavioral treatments for obsessive–compulsive disorder? A clinical significance analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1543–1558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitch, K.E., & Cougle, J.R. (2013). An evaluation of obsessive beliefs as predictors of performance on in vivo assessments of obsessive–compulsive symptoms. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37, 207–220.Google Scholar
Flament, M.F., Whitaker, A., Rapoport, J.L., Davies, M., Berg, C.Z., Kalikow, K., . . . Shaffer, D. (1988). Obsessive compulsive disorder in adolescence: An epidemiological study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 764–771.Google Scholar
Flessner, C.A., Freeman, J.B., Sapyta, J., Garcia, A., Franklin, M.E., March, J.S., & Foa, E. (2011). Predictors of parental accommodation in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: Findings from the pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder treatment study (POTS) trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 716–725.Google Scholar
Foa, E.B., Amir, N., Bogert, K.V., Molnar, C., & Przeworski, A. (2001). Inflated perception of responsibility for harm in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 15, 259–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, E.B., & Kozak, M.J. (1985). Treatment of anxiety disorders: Implications for psychopathology. In Tuma, A.H. & Maser, J.D. (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 421–452). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Foa, E.B., Liebowitz, M.R., Kozak, M.J., Davies, S., Campeas, R., Franklin, M.E., . . . Schmidt, A.B. (2005). Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of exposure and ritual prevention, clomipramine, and their combination in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 151–161.Google Scholar
Foa, E.B., Sacks, M.B., Tolin, D.F., Prezworski, A., & Amir, N. (2002). Inflated perception of responsibility for harm in OCD patients with and without checking compulsions: A replication and extension. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16, 443–453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeston, M.H., & Ladouceur, R. (1993). Appraisal of cognitive intrusions and response style: Replication and extension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 185–191.Google Scholar
Freeston, M.H., Ladouceur, R., Gagnon, F., & Thibodeau, N. (1993). Beliefs about obsessional thoughts. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 15, 1–21.Google Scholar
Freeston, M.H., Rhéaume, J., & Ladouceur, R. (1996). Correcting faulty appraisals of obsessional thoughts. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 433–446.Google Scholar
Frost, R.O., Novara, C., & Rhéaume, J. (2002). Perfectionism in obsessive compulsive disorder. In Frost, R.O. & Steketee, G. (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: Theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 91–105). Oxford: Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frost, R.O., & Steketee, G. (1997). Perfectionism in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 291–296.Google Scholar
Frost, R.O., Steketee, G., Cohn, L., & Griess, K. (1994). Personality traits in subclinical and non-obsessive-compulsive volunteers and their parents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 47–56.Google Scholar
Garcia, A.M., Sapyta, J.J., Moore, P.S., Freeman, J.B., Franklin, M.E., March, J.S., & Foa, E.B. (2010). Predictors and moderators of treatment outcome in the pediatric obsessive compulsive treatment study (POTS I). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 1024–1033.Google Scholar
Geller, D.A. (2006). Obsessive-compulsive and spectrum disorders in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 29, 353–370.Google Scholar
Geller, D.A., Biederman, J., Faraone, S., Agranat, A., Cradock, K., Hagermoser, L., . . . Coffey, B.J. (2001). Developmental aspects of obsessive compulsive disorder: Findings in children, adolescents, and adults. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189, 471–477.Google Scholar
Geller, D.A., Biederman, J., Jones, J., Park, K., Schwartz, S., Shapiro, S., & Coffey, B. (1998). Is juvenile obsessive‐compulsive disorder a developmental subtype of the disorder? A review of the pediatric literature. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 420–427.Google Scholar
Geller, D.A., Biederman, J., Jones, J., Shapiro, S., Schwartz, S., & Park, K.S. (1998). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents: A review. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 5, 260–273.Google Scholar
Geller, D.A., & March, J. (2012). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 98–113.Google Scholar
Geller, D.A., Wagner, K.D., Emslie, G., Murphy, T., Carpenter, D.J., Wetherhold, E., . . . Gardiner, C. (2004). Paroxetine treatment in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 1387–1396.Google Scholar
Gentes, E.L., & Ruscio, A.M. (2011). A meta-analysis of the relation of intolerance of uncertainty to symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 923–933.Google Scholar
Ginsburg, G.S., Kingery, J.N., Drake, K.L., & Grados, M.A. (2008). Predictors of treatment response in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 868–878.Google Scholar
Grabill, K., Merlo, L., Duke, D., Harford, K.-L., Keeley, M.L., Geffken, G.R., & Storch, E.A. (2008). Assessment of obsessive–compulsive disorder: a review. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 1–17.Google Scholar
Guidano, V.F., Liotti, G., & Guidano, V. (1983). Cognitive processes and emotional disorders: A structural approach to psychotherapy: New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gwilliam, P., Wells, A., & Cartwright‐Hatton, S. (2004). Does meta‐cognition or responsibility predict obsessive–compulsive symptoms: A test of the metacognitive model. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 11, 137–144.Google Scholar
Helbing, M.-L.C., & Ficca, M. (2009). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in school-age children. The Journal of School Nursing, 25, 15–26.Google Scholar
Heyman, I., Fombonne, E., Simmons, H., Ford, T., Meltzer, H., & Goodman, R. (2003). Prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the British nationwide survey of child mental health. International Review of Psychiatry, 15, 178–184.Google Scholar
Holaway, R.M., Heimberg, R.G., & Coles, M.E. (2006). A comparison of intolerance of uncertainty in analogue obsessive-compulsive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 158–174.Google Scholar
Hollander, E., Stein, D., Broatch, J., Himelein, C., & Rowland, C. (1997). A pharmacoeconomic and quality of life study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectrums, 2, 16–25.Google Scholar
Huan, J.Y., Rice, K.G., & Storch, E.A. (2008). Perfectionism and peer relations among children with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 39, 415–426.Google Scholar
Ivarsson, T., Skarphedinsson, G., Kornør, H., Axelsdottir, B., Biedilæ, S., Heyman, I., . . . March, J. (2015). The place of and evidence for serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) in children and adolescents: Views based on a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 227, 93–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, M.K., & Menzies, R.G. (1997a). The cognitive mediation of obsessive-compulsive handwashing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 843–850.Google Scholar
Jones, M.K., & Menzies, R.G. (1997b). Danger Ideation Reduction Therapy (DIRT): Preliminary findings with three obsessive-compulsive washers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 955–960.Google Scholar
Jones, M.K., & Menzies, R.G. (1998). Danger ideation reduction therapy (DIRT) for obsessive–compulsive washers. A controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 959–970.Google Scholar
Julien, D., O'Connor, K.P., & Aardema, F. (2007). Intrusive thoughts, obsessions, and appraisals in obsessive–compulsive disorder: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 366–383.Google Scholar
Kadak, M.T., Balsak, F., Besiroglu, L., & Çelik, C. (2014). Relationships between cognitive appraisals of adolescents with OCD and their mothers. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55, 598–603.Google Scholar
Karno, M., Golding, J.M., Sorenson, S.B., & Burnam, M.A. (1988). The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in five US communities. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1094.Google Scholar
Keeley, M.L., Storch, E.A., Dhungana, P., & Geffken, G.R. (2007). Pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: A guide to assessment and treatment. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 28, 555–574.Google Scholar
Koran, L.M., Hanna, G.L., Nestadt, G., Hollander, E., & Simpson, H.B. (2007). Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 5–53.Google Scholar
Koran, L.M., Thienemann, M.L., & Davenport, R. (1996). Quality of life for patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 783–788.Google ScholarPubMed
Krochmalik, A., Jones, M.K., Menzies, R.G., & Kirkby, K. (2004). The superiority of danger ideation reduction therapy (DIRT) over exposure and response prevention (ERP) in treating compulsive washing. Behaviour Change, 21, 251–268.Google Scholar
Kumar, A., Sharma, M.P., Kandavel, T., & Reddy, Y.J. (2012). Cognitive appraisals and quality of life in patients with obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 1, 301–305.Google Scholar
Ladouceur, R., Rhéaume, J., & Aublet, F. (1997). Excessive responsibility in obsessional concerns: A fine-grained experimental analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 423–427.Google Scholar
Ladouceur, R., Rhéaume, J., Freeston, M.H., Aublet, F., Jean, K., Lachance, S., . . . de Pokomandy-Morin, K. (1995). Experimental manipulations of responsibility: an analogue test for models of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 937–946.Google Scholar
Lambert, M. (2008). Practice guidelines: APA releases guidelines on treating obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Family Physician, 78, 131–135.Google Scholar
Lawrence, P.J., & Williams, T.I. (2011). Pathways to inflated responsibility beliefs in adolescent obsessive-compulsive disorder: a preliminary investigation. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 39, 229–234.Google Scholar
Leckman, J.F., Walker, D.E., Goodman, W.K., Pauls, D.L., & Cohen, D.J. (1994). ‘Just right’ perceptions associated with compulsive behavior in Tourette's syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 675–680.Google Scholar
Libby, S., Reynolds, S., Derisley, J., & Clark, S. (2004). Cognitive appraisals in young people with obsessive‐compulsive disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1076–1084.Google Scholar
Lind, C., & Boschen, M.J. (2009). Intolerance of uncertainty mediates the relationship between responsibility beliefs and compulsive checking. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 1047–1052.Google Scholar
Lopatka, C., & Rachman, S. (1995). Perceived responsibility and compulsive checking: An experimental analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 673–684.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacDonald, B., & Davey, G.C. (2005). Inflated responsibility and perseverative checking: The effect of negative mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 176.Google Scholar
Magnúsdóttir, I., & Smári, J. (2004). Are responsibility attitudes related to obsessive‐compulsive symptoms in schoolchildren? Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 33, 21–26.Google Scholar
Mallinger, A.E. (1984). The obsessive's myth of control. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 12, 147.Google Scholar
Mancini, F., D'Olimpio, F., & Cieri, L. (2004). Manipulation of responsibility in non-clinical subjects: Does expectation of failure exacerbate obsessive-compulsive behaviors? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 449–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mantz, S., & Abbott, M.J. (2017). The relationship between responsibility beliefs and symptoms and processes in obsessive compulsive disorder: A systematic review. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
March, J.S. (1995). Cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy for children and adolescents with OCD: A review and recommendations for treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 7–18.Google Scholar
March, J., Foa, E., Gammon, P., Chrisman, A., Curry, J., Fitzgerald, D., . . . Rynn, M. (2004). Cognitive-behavior therapy, sertraline, and their combination for children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: The pediatric OCD treatment study (POTS) randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 292, 1969–1976.Google Scholar
March, J.S., & Leonard, H.L. (1996). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1265–1273.Google Scholar
March, J.S., & Mulle, K. (1998). OCD in children and adolescents: A cognitive-behavioral treatment manual. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Marks, I.M. (1987). Fears, phobias, and rituals: Panic, anxiety, and their disorders. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mataix-Cols, D., & Marks, I.M. (2006). Self-help with minimal therapist contact for obsessive–compulsive disorder: A review. European Psychiatry, 21, 75–80.Google Scholar
Matsunaga, H., Kiriike, N., Matsui, T., Oya, K., Iwasaki, Y., Koshimune, K., . . . Stein, D. (2002). Obsessive-compulsive disorder with poor insight. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43, 150–157.Google Scholar
Matthews, L., Reynolds, S., & Derisley, J. (2007). Examining cognitive models of obsessive compulsive disorder in adolescents. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 35, 149–163.Google Scholar
Mavrogiorgou, P., Bethge, M., Luksnat, S., Nalato, F., Juckel, G., & Brüne, M. (2016). Social cognition and metacognition in obsessive–compulsive disorder: An explorative pilot study. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 266, 209–216.Google Scholar
McFall, M.E., & Wollersheim, J.P. (1979). Obsessive-compulsive neurosis: A cognitive-behavioral formulation and approach to treatment. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 3, 333–348.Google Scholar
McKay, D., Kim, S.-K., Taylor, S., Abramowitz, J.S., Tolin, D., Coles, M., . . . Olatunji, B. (2014). An examination of obsessive-compulsive symptoms and dimensions using profile analysis via multidimensional scaling (PAMS). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28, 352–357.Google Scholar
Merlo, L.J., Lehmkuhl, H.D., Geffken, G.R., & Storch, E.A. (2009). Decreased family accommodation associated with improved therapy outcome in pediatric obsessive–compulsive disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moretz, M.W., & McKay, D. (2009). The role of perfectionism in obsessive–compulsive symptoms: ‘Not just right’ experiences and checking compulsions. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 640–644.Google Scholar
Morillo, C., Belloch, A., & García-Soriano, G. (2007). Clinical obsessions in obsessive-compulsive patients and obsession-relevant intrusive thoughts in non-clinical, depressed and anxious subjects: Where are the differences? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1319–1333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moritz, S., & Jelinek, L. (2009). Inversion of the ‘unrealistic optimism’ bias contributes to overestimation of threat in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 37, 179–193.Google Scholar
Moritz, S., & Pohl, R.F. (2009). Biased processing of threat-related information rather than knowledge deficits contributes to overestimation of threat in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavior Modification, 33, 763–777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, J. (1995). DSM-IV made easy: The clinician's guide to diagnosis. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Moulding, R., Anglim, J., Nedeljkovic, M., Doron, G., Kyrios, M., & Ayalon, A. (2010). The obsessive beliefs questionnaire (OBQ): Examination in nonclinical samples and development of a short version. Assessment, 18, 357–374.Google Scholar
Moulding, R., & Kyrios, M. (2006). Anxiety disorders and control related beliefs: The exemplar of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 573–583.Google Scholar
Muris, P., Meesters, C., Rassin, E., Merckelbach, H., & Campbell, J. (2001). Thought–action fusion and anxiety disorders symptoms in normal adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 843–852.Google Scholar
Muris, P., Rapee, R., Meesters, C., Schouten, E., & Geers, M. (2003). Threat perception abnormalities in children: The role of anxiety disorders symptoms, chronic anxiety, and state anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17, 271–287.Google Scholar
Murphy, Y.E., & Flessner, C.A. (2015). Family functioning in paediatric obsessive compulsive and related disorders. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, 414–434.Google Scholar
Myers, S.G., Fisher, P.L., & Wells, A. (2008). Belief domains of the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire-44 (OBQ-44) and their specific relationship with obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 475–484.Google Scholar
Myers, S.G., & Wells, A. (2005). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms: The contribution of metacognitions and responsibility. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19, 806–817.Google Scholar
Nakatani, E., Nakagawa, A., Nakao, T., Yoshizato, C., Nabeyama, M., Kudo, A., . . . Kawamoto, M. (2005). A randomized controlled trial of Japanese patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder–effectiveness of behavior therapy and fluvoxamine. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 74, 269–276.Google Scholar
Niemeyer, H., Moritz, S., & Pietrowsky, R. (2013). Responsibility, metacognition and unrealistic pessimism in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 2, 119–129.Google Scholar
Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group (1997). Cognitive assessment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 667–681.Google Scholar
Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group (OCCWG). (2001). Development and initial validation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire and the interpretation of intrusions inventory. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 987–1006.Google Scholar
Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group (OCCWG). (2003). Psychometric validation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire and the interpretation of intrusions inventory: Part I. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 863–878.Google Scholar
Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group (OCCWG). (2005). Psychometric validation of the obsessive belief questionnaire and interpretation of intrusions inventory: Part 2: Factor analyses and testing of a brief version. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1527–1542.Google Scholar
Olatunji, B.O., Davis, M.L., Powers, M.B., & Smits, J.A. (2013). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis of treatment outcome and moderators. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 47, 33–41.Google Scholar
Pacht, A.R. (1984). Reflections on perfection. American Psychologist, 39, 386–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkinson, L., & Rachman, S. (1981). Part II. The nature of intrusive thoughts. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 3, 101–110.Google Scholar
Parrish, C.L., & Radomsky, A.S. (2011). An experimental investigation of factors involved in excessive reassurance seeking: The effects of perceived threat, responsibility and ambiguity on compulsive urges and anxiety. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 2, 44–62.Google Scholar
Pauls, D., Alsobrook, J., Goodman, W., Rasmussen, S., & Leckman, J. (1995). A family study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 76–84.Google Scholar
Pazvantoğlu, O., Algül, A., Ateş, M.A., Sarısoy, G., Ebrinc, S., Başoğlu, C., & Cetin, M. (2013). Metacognitive functions in obsessive compulsive disorder in a Turkish clinical population: The relationship between symptom types and metacognition subdimensions. Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23, 65–71.Google Scholar
Peris, T.S., Sugar, C.A., Bergman, R.L., Chang, S., Langley, A., & Piacentini, J. (2012). Family factors predict treatment outcome for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 255.Google Scholar
Piacentini, J., Bergman, R.L., Keller, M., & McCracken, J. (2003). Functional impairment in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 13, 61–69.Google Scholar
Pişgin, İ., & Özen, D.Ş. (2010). Faulty appraisals and belief domains in obsessive compulsive disorder from childhood to adulthood. Current Approaches in Psychiatry, 2, 117–131.Google Scholar
Pleva, J., & Wade, T.D. (2006). The mediating effects of misinterpretation of intrusive thoughts on obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1471–1479.Google Scholar
Poppe, C., Müller, S.T., Greil, W., Walder, A., Grohmann, R., & Stübner, S. (2016). Pharmacotherapy for obsessive compulsive disorder in clinical practice: Data of 842 inpatients from the international AMSP project between 1994 and 2012. Journal of Affective Disorders, 200, 89–96.Google Scholar
Pozza, A., & Dèttore, D. (2014a). Are inflated responsibility beliefs specific to OCD? Meta-analyses of the relations of responsibility to OCD, anxiety disorders, and depression symptoms. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 11, 170–181.Google Scholar
Pozza, A., & Dèttore, D. (2014b). The specificity of inflated responsibility beliefs to OCD: A systematic review and meta-analysis of published cross-sectional case-control studies. Research in Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 75–85.Google Scholar
Purdon, C., & Clark, D.A. (1993). Obsessive intrusive thoughts in nonclinical subjects: Part I: Content and relation with depressive, anxious and obsessional symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 713–720.Google Scholar
Purdon, C., & Clark, D.A. (2002). The need to control thoughts. In Frost, R.O. & Steketee, G. (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: Theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 29–43). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Rachman, S. (1971). Obsessional ruminations. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 9, 229–235.Google Scholar
Rachman, S. (1993). Obsessions, responsibility and guilt. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 149–154.Google Scholar
Rachman, S. (1997). A cognitive theory of obsessions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 793–802.Google Scholar
Rachman, S. (2002). A cognitive theory of compulsive checking. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 625–639.Google Scholar
Rachman, S., & de Silva, P. (1978). Abnormal and normal obsessions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 16, 233–248.Google Scholar
Rachman, S.J., & Hodgson, R.J. (1980). Obsessions and compulsions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, S.A., & Eisen, J.L. (1989). Clinical features and phenomenology of obsessive compulsive disorder. Psychiatric Annals, 19, 67–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, G.F. (1985). Obsessional experience and compulsive behaviour: A cognitive-structural approach. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Reynolds, S., & Reeves, J. (2008). Do cognitive models of obsessive compulsive disorder apply to children and adolescents? Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36, 463–471.Google Scholar
Reeves, J., Reynolds, S., Coker, S., & Wilson, C. (2010). An experimental manipulation of responsibility in children: A test of the inflated responsibility model of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41, 228–233.Google Scholar
Rhéaume, J., Freeston, M.H., Dugas, M.J., Letarte, H., & Ladouceur, R. (1995). Perfectionism, responsibility and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 785–794.Google Scholar
Rhéaume, J., Ladouceur, R., & Freeston, M.H. (1997). The prediction of obsessive-compulsive symptoms: New evidence for a multiple cognition explanation. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 33, 785–794.Google Scholar
Rhéaume, J., Ladouceur, R., Freeston, M.H., & Letarte, H. (1995). Inflated responsibility in obsessive compulsive disorder: Validation of an operational definition. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 159–169.Google Scholar
Riddle, M.A. (1998). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. CNS Spectrums, 3, 21–23.Google Scholar
Riddle, M.A., Reeve, E.A., Yaryura-Tobias, J.A., Yang, H.M., Claghorn, J.L., Gaffney, G., . . . Pigott, T. (2001). Fluvoxamine for children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, controlled, multicenter trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 222–229.Google Scholar
Riskind, J.H., Abreu, K., Strauss, M., & Holt, R. (1997). Looming vulnerability to spreading contamination in subclinical OCD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 405–414.Google Scholar
Romanelli, R.J., Wu, F.M., Gamba, R., Mojtabai, R., & Segal, J.B. (2014). Behavioral therapy and serotonin reuptake inhibitor pharmacotherapy in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of head‐to‐head randomized controlled trials. Depression and Anxiety, 31, 641–652.Google Scholar
Rosa-Alcázar, A.I., Sánchez-Meca, J., Gómez-Conesa, A., & Marín-Martínez, F. (2008). Psychological treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 1310–1325.Google Scholar
Rosa-Alcázar, A.I., Sánchez-Meca, J., Rosa-Alcázar, Á., Iniesta-Sepúlveda, M., Olivares-Rodríguez, J., & Parada-Navas, J.L. (2015). Psychological treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 18, e20.Google Scholar
Ruscio, A., Stein, D., Chiu, W., & Kessler, R. (2010). The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the national comorbidity survey replication. Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 53–63.Google Scholar
Salkovskis, P.M. (1985). Obsessional-compulsive problems: A cognitive-behavioural analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 571–583.Google Scholar
Salkovskis, P.M. (1989). Cognitive-behavioural factors and the persistence of intrusive thoughts in obsessional problems. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 27, 677–682.Google Scholar
Salkovskis, P.M. (1999). Understanding and treating obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 29–52.Google Scholar
Salkovskis, P.M., Richards, H., & Forrester, E. (1995). The relationship between obsessional problems and intrusive thoughts. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 281–299.Google Scholar
Salkovskis, P., Shafran, R., Rachman, S., & Freeston, M.H. (1999). Multiple pathways to inflated responsibility beliefs in obsessional problems: Possible origins and implications for therapy and research. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 1055–1072.Google Scholar
Sánchez-Meca, J., Rosa-Alcázar, A.I., Iniesta-Sepúlveda, M., & Rosa-Alcázar, Á. (2014). Differential efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy and pharmacological treatments for pediatric obsessive–compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28, 31–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarawgi, S., Oglesby, M.E., & Cougle, J.R. (2013). Intolerance of uncertainty and obsessive-compulsive symptom expression. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44, 456–462.Google Scholar
Shafran, R. (1997). The manipulation of responsibility in obsessive‐compulsive disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 397–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shafran, R., Thordarson, D.S., & Rachman, S. (1996). Thought-action fusion in obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10, 379–391.Google Scholar
Shoenfelt, J.L., & Weston, C.G. (2007). Managing obsessive compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. Psychiatry (Edgmont), 4, 47–53.Google Scholar
Sica, C., Coradeschi, D., Sanavio, E., Dorz, S., Manchisi, D., & Novara, C. (2004). A study of the psychometric properties of the Obsessive Beliefs Inventory and Interpretations of Intrusions Inventory on clinical Italian individuals. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18, 291–307.Google Scholar
Skarphedinsson, G., Hanssen-Bauer, K., Kornør, H., Heiervang, E.R., Landrø, N.I., Axelsdottir, B., . . . Ivarsson, T. (2015). Standard individual cognitive behaviour therapy for paediatric obsessive–compulsive disorder: A systematic review of effect estimates across comparisons. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 69, 81–92.Google Scholar
Skoog, G., & Skoog, I. (1999). A 40-year follow-up of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 121–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sookman, D., & Pinard, G. (2002). Overestimation of threat and intolerance of uncertainty in obsessive compulsive disorder. In Frost, R.O. & Steketee, G. (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: Theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 63–89). Oxford: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Soreni, N., Streiner, D., McCabe, R., Bullard, C., Swinson, R., Greco, A., . . . Szatmari, P. (2014). Dimensions of perfectionism in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 23, 136.Google Scholar
Sousa, M.B., Isolan, L.R., Oliveira, R.R., Manfro, G.G., & Cordioli, A.V. (2006). A randomized clinical trial of cognitive-behavioral group therapy and sertraline in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 1133–1139.Google Scholar
Stein, D.J. (2002). Obsessive-compulsive disorder. The Lancet, 360, 397–405.Google Scholar
Steinhausen, H.C., Metzke, C.W., Meier, M., & Kannenberg, R. (1998). Prevalence of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders: The Zürich epidemiological study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 98, 262–271.Google Scholar
Steketee, G., Frost, R.O., & Cohen, I. (1998). Beliefs in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 12, 525–537.Google Scholar
Steketee, G., Pigott, T.A., & Schemmel, T. (2006). Obsessive compulsive disorder: The latest assessment and treatment strategies. Kansas City, MO: Compact Clinicals.Google Scholar
Storch, E.A. (2005). Pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: Guide to effective and complete treatment. Contemporary Pediatrics, 22, 58–70.Google Scholar
Storch, E.A., Björgvinsson, T., Riemann, B., Lewin, A.B., Morales, M.J., & Murphy, T.K. (2010). Factors associated with poor response in cognitive-behavioral therapy for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 74, 167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suarez, L., & Bell-Dolan, D. (2001). The relationship of child worry to cognitive biases: Threat interpretation and likelihood of event occurrence. Behavior Therapy, 32, 425–442.Google Scholar
Summerfeldt, L.J. (2004). Understanding and treating incompleteness in obsessive‐compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1155–1168.Google Scholar
Thordarson, D.S., & Shafran, R. (2002). Importance of thoughts. In Frost, R.O. & Steketee, G. (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: Theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 15–28). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Thorpe, S.J., Barnett, J., Friend, K., & Nottingham, K. (2011). The mediating roles of disgust sensitivity and danger expectancy in relation to hand washing behaviour. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 39, 175–190.Google Scholar
Tolin, D.F., Abramowitz, J.S., Brigidi, B.D., Amir, N., Street, G.P., & Foa, E.B. (2001). Memory and memory confidence in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 913–927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tolin, D.F., Abramowitz, J.S., Brigidi, B.D., & Foa, E.B. (2003). Intolerance of uncertainty in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17, 233–242.Google Scholar
Tolin, D.F., Abramowitz, J.S., Hamlin, C., Foa, E.B., & Synodi, D.S. (2002). Attributions for thought suppression failure in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 505–517.Google Scholar
Tolin, D.F., Abramowitz, J.S., Przeworski, A., & Foa, E.B. (2002). Thought suppression in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1255–1274.Google Scholar
Tolin, D.F., Hamlin, C., & Foa, E.B. (2002). Directed forgetting in obsessive-compulsive disorder: replication and extension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 793–803.Google Scholar
Tolin, D.F., Woods, C.M., & Abramowitz, J.S. (2003). Relationship between obsessive beliefs and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 657–669.Google Scholar
Tolin, D.F., Worhunsky, P., & Maltby, N. (2006). Are ‘obsessive’ beliefs specific to OCD?: A comparison across anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 469–480.Google Scholar
Torres, A.R., Prince, M.J., Psych, M., Bebbington, P.E., Bhugra, D., Brugha, T.S., . . . Lewis, G. (2006). Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Prevalence, comorbidity, impact, and help-seeking in the british national psychiatric morbidity survey of 2000. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1978–1985.Google Scholar
Vaccaro, L.D., Jones, M.K., Menzies, R.G., & St Clare, T. (2010). Danger Ideation Reduction Therapy (DIRT) for obsessive-compulsive checkers: A comprehensive guide to treatment. Brisbane, Australia: Australian Academic Press.Google Scholar
Vaccaro, L.D., Jones, M.K., Menzies, R.G., & Wootton, B.M. (2014). The treatment of obsessive‐compulsive checking: A randomised trial comparing danger ideation reduction therapy with exposure and response prevention. Clinical Psychologist, 18, 74–95.Google Scholar
Valleni-Basile, L.A., Garrison, C.Z., Jackson, K.L., Waller, J.L., McKeown, R.E., Addy, C.L., & Cuffe, S.P. (1994). Frequency of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 782–791.Google Scholar
van den Hout, M., & Kindt, M. (2003). Repeated checking causes memory distrust. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 301–316.Google Scholar
Van Oppen, P., & Arntz, A. (1994). Cognitive therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 79–87.Google Scholar
Van Oppen, P., Hoekstra, R.J., & Emmelkamp, P.M. (1995). The structure of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 15–23.Google Scholar
Verhaak, L., & De Haan, E. (2007). Cognitions in children with OCD. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 16, 353–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, A.M., Craske, M.G., Bergman, R.L., & Treanor, M. (2008). Threat interpretation bias as a vulnerability factor in childhood anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 39–47.Google Scholar
Weissman, M., Bland, R., Canino, G., Greenwald, S., Hwu, H.G., Lee, C., . . . Wickramaratne, P.J. (1994). The cross national epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55, 5–10.Google Scholar
Williams, T.I., Salkovskis, P.M., Forrester, E.A., & Allsopp, M.A. (2002). Changes in symptoms of OCD and appraisal of responsibility during cognitive behavioural treatment: A pilot study. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 30, 69–78.Google Scholar
Wilson, K.A., & Chambless, D.L. (1999). Inflated perceptions of responsibility and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 325–335.Google Scholar
Woods, C.M., Frost, R.O., & Steketee, G. (2002). Obsessive compulsive (OC) symptoms and subjective severity, probability, and coping ability estimations of future negative events. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 9, 104–111.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2001). The world health report 2001: Mental health: new understanding, new hope. Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Wroe, A.L., & Salkovskis, P.M. (2000). Causing harm and allowing harm: A study of beliefs in obsessional problems. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 1141–1162.Google Scholar
Wu, K.D., & Cortesi, G.T. (2009). Relations between perfectionism and obsessive–compulsive symptoms: Examination of specificity among the dimensions. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 393–400.Google Scholar
Zohar, A.H. (1999). The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 8, 445–460.Google Scholar