Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T11:29:25.023Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sketch of a componential subtheory of human intelligence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Robert J. Sternberg
Robert J. Sternberg
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 06520
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

This article sketches a subtheory of human intelligence based on the component construct. Components differ in their levels of generality and in their functions. Metacomponents are higher-order control process used for planning how a problem should be solved, for making decisions regarding alternative courses of action during problem solving, and for monitoring solution processes. Performance components are processes used in the execution of a problem-solving strategy. Acquisition components are processes used in learning new information. Retention components are processes used in retrieving previously stored knowledge. Transfer components are used in generalization, that is, in carrying over knowledge from one task or task context to another. A mechanism for the interaction among components of different kinds and multiple components of the same kind can account for certain interesting aspects of laboratory and everyday problem solving. A brief historical overview of alternative basic units for understanding intelligence is followed by a detailed description of one of these units, the component and by a differentiation among various kinds of components. Examples of each kind of component are given, and the use of each of these components in a problem-solving situation is illustrated. Then, a system of interrelations among the various kinds of components is described. Finally, the functions of components in human intelligence are assessed by considering how the proposed subtheory can account for various empirical phenomena in the literature on human intelligence.

Keywords

abilitiescognitioncomponentfactorindividual differencesinformation processingintelligencethought
Type
Target Articles
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 3 , Issue 4 , December 1980 , pp. 573 - 584
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1980

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, J. R. (1976) Memory, language, and thought. Hillsdale. N.J.: Erlbaum.[EH]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Bower, G. H. (1973) Human associative memory. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [ECB]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1976) The psychology of memory. New York: Basic Books. [EH]Google Scholar
Bentler, P. M. (1980) Multivariate analysis with latent variables: causal modeling. Annual Review of Psychology 31:419–56. [JRF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, J. W. (1974) Radical cultural relativism and the concept of intelligence. In: Culture and cognition: readings in cross-cultural psychology, ed. Berry, J. W. & Dasen, P. R.. London: Methuen. [RJS]Google Scholar
Berry, J. W. (1976) Human ecology and cognitive style: comparative studies in cultural and psychological adaptation. New York: Sage Halsted. [JWB]Google Scholar
Berry, J. W. (in press) Cultural systems and cognitive styles. In: Intelligence and learning, ed. Friedman, M.. [JWB]Google Scholar
Boring, E. G. (1923) Intelligence as the tests test it. New Republic, June 6, pp. 35–37. [EH]Google Scholar
Borkowski, J. G. (in press) Signs of intelligence: strategy generalization and metacognition. In: The development of reflection, ed. Yussen, S.. New York: Academic Press. [JGB]Google Scholar
Borkowski, J. G. & Cavanaugh, J. C. (1979) Maintenance and generalization of skills and strategies by the retarded. In: Handbook of mental deficiency, ed. Ellis, N. R.. 2nd ed. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Borkowski, J. G. & Cavanaugh, J. C. (1980) Metacognition and intelligence theory. In: Intelligence and learning, ed. Friedman, M., Das, J. P., & O'connor, N.. New York: Plenum. [JGB]Google Scholar
Brody, E. B. & Brody, N. (1976) Intelligence: nature, determinants, and consequences. New York: Academic Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Brown, A. L. (1978) Knowing when, where, and how to remember: a problem of metacognition. In: Advances in instructional psychology, vol. 1, ed. Glaser, R.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [JGB, RJS]Google Scholar
Brown, A. L. & Deloache, J. S. (1978) Skills, plans, and self-regulation. In: Children's thinking: what develops?, ed. Siegler, R.. Hillsdale. N.J.: Erlbaum. [ECB, RJS]Google Scholar
Brown, J. S. & Burton, R. R. (1978) Diagnostic models for procedural bugs in basic mathematical skills. Cognitive Science 2:155–92. [AC]Google Scholar
Burt, C. (1940) The factors of the mind. London: University of London Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Butcher, H. J. (1970) Human intelligence: its nature and assessment. London: Methuen. [RJS]Google Scholar
Butterfield, E. C. (1978) On studying cognitive development. In: Observing behavior: theory and application in mental retardation, ed. Sacked, J. P.. Baltimore: University Park Press. [ECB]Google Scholar
Butterfield, E. C. & Belmont, J. M. (1977) Assessing and improving the cognition of mentally retarded people. In: Psychology of mental retardation: issues and approaches, ed. Bialer, I. & Sternlicht, M.. New York: Psychological Dimensions. [JGB, ECB, RJS]Google Scholar
Butterfield, E. C.; Siladi, D.; & Belmont, J. M. (1980) Validating theories of intelligence. In: Advances in child development and child behavior, vol. 15, ed. Reese, H. & Lipsitt, L. P.. New York: Academic Press. [JGB, ECB]Google Scholar
Butterfield, E. C.; Wambold, C.; & Belmont, J. M. (1973) On the theory and practice of improving short-term memory. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 77:654–69. [RJS]Google ScholarPubMed
Campione, J. C. & Brown, A. L. (1977) Memory and metamemory development in educable retarded children. In: Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition, ed. Kail, R. V. Jr, & Hagen, J. W.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Campione, J. C. & Brown, A. L. (1979) Toward a theory of intelligence: contributions from research with retarded children. In: Human intelligence: perspectives on its theory and measurement, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K.. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. [RJS]Google Scholar
Carpenter, P. A. & Just, M. A. (1975) Sentence comprehension: a psycholinguistic model of verification. Psychological Review 82:45–73. [EH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1976) Psychometric tests as cognitive tasks: a new “structure of intellect.” In: The nature of intelligence, ed. Resnick, L. B.. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum. [PK, RJS]Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1980) Individual difference relations in psychometric and experimental cognitive tasks. L. L. Thurstone Psychometric Laboratory, University of North Carolina. [JBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, J. B. & Maxwell, S. E. (1979) Individual differences in cognitive abilities. Annual Reviewof Psychology 30:603–40. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cattell, R. B. (1971) Abilities: their structure, growth, and action. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. [RJS]Google Scholar
Chase, W. G. & Simon, H. A. (1972) The mind's eye in chess. In: Visual information processing, ed. Chase, W. G.. New York: Academic Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Chi, M. T. H.; Feltovich, P. J.; & Glaser, R. (1980) Representation of physics knowledge by experts and novices. ONR Technical Report no. 2. Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh. [JRF]Google Scholar
Clark, H. H. & Chase, W. C. (1972) On the process of comparing sentences against pictures. Cognitive Psychology 3:472–517. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, M.; Gay, J.; Glick, J. A.; & Sharp, D. W. (1971) The cultural context of learning and thinking. New York: Basic Books. [RJS]Google Scholar
Cole, M. & Scribner, S. (1974) Culture and thought: a psychological introduction. New York: Wiley. [RJS]Google Scholar
Collins, A. (1978a) Fragments of a theory of human plausible reasoning. In: Theoretical issues in natural language processing, vol. 2, ed. Waltz, D. L.. Champaign: University of Illinois Press. [AC]Google Scholar
Collins, A. (1978b) Human plausible reasoning. Cambridge, Mass. Bolt Beranek & Newman, Report no. 3810. [AC]Google Scholar
Collins, A. M. & Loftus, E. F. (1975) A spreading-aclivation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review 82:407–28. [JRF, EH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cronbach, L. J. (1970) Essentials of psychological testing. 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row. [RJS]Google Scholar
Cronbach, L. J. & Snow, R. E. (1977) Aptitudes and instructional methods. New York: Irvington. [RJS]Google Scholar
Darlington, R. B. (1968) Multiple regression in psychological research and practice. Psychological Bulletin 69:161–82. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Degroot, A. D. (1965) Thought and choice in chess. The Hague: Mouton. [JRF]Google Scholar
Degroot, A. D. (1966) Perception and memory versus thought: some old ideas and recent findings. In: Problem solving: research method and theory, ed. Kleinmuntz, B.. New York: Wiley. [JRF]Google Scholar
Diamond, S. R. & Royce, J. R. (1979) Cognitive abilities as expressions of three “ways of knowing.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 15:31–56. [JRR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feuerstein, R. (1979a) The dynamic assessment of retarded performers: the learning potential assessment device, theory, instruments, and techniques. Baltimore: University Park Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Feuerstein, R. (1979b) Instrumental enrichment: an intervention program for cognitive modifiability. Baltimore: University Park Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H. (1977) Cognitive development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. [RJS]Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H. & Wellman, H. M. (1977) Metamemory. In: Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition, ed. Kail, R. V. Jr, and Hagen, J. W.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [JGB, ECB, RJS]Google Scholar
Fleishman, E. A. (1978) Relating individual differences to the dimensions of human tasks. Ergonomics. 21:1007–19. [HCL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frederiksen, J. R. (1978) A chronometric study of component skills in reading. Bolt Beranek & Newman, Report no. 3757. [JRF]Google Scholar
Frederiksen, J. R. (1980) Component skills in reading: measurement of individual differences through chronometric analysis. In: Aptitude, learning, and instruction: cognitive process analysis, ed. Snow, R. E., Federico, P.-A., & Montague, W. E.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Frederiksen, J. R. (in press) Sources of process interaction in reading. In: Interactive processes in reading, ed. Lesgold, A. M. & Perfetti, C. A.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [JRF]Google Scholar
Frederiksen, J. R. (in preparation) Measurement and analysis of perceptual and cognitive abilities in verbal information processing: a final report. Cambridge, Mass.: Bolt Beranek & Newman, Inc. [JRF]Google Scholar
Gagné, R. M. (1970) The conditions of learning. 2d ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. [RJS]Google Scholar
Glaser, R. & Chi, M. (1979) Progress report presented at ONR Contractors' meeting, New Orleans. [RJS]Google Scholar
Goodnow, J. J. (1976) The nature of intelligent behavior: questions raised by cross-cultural studies. In: The nature of intelligence, ed. Resnick, L. B.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Gorsuch, R. L. (1974) Factor analysis. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. [RJS]Google Scholar
Greeno, J. G. & Bjork, R. A. (1973) Mathematical learning theory and the new “mental forestry.” Annual Review of Psychology. 24:81–115. [ECB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1964) Zero intercorrelations among tests of intellectual abilities. Psychological Bulletin. 61:401–4. [JPG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1967) The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. [CMM, RJS]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1972a) Executive functions and a model of behavior. Journal of General Psychology. 86:279–87. [JPG]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1972b) Some misconceptions of factors. Psychological Bulletin. 77:392–96. [HCL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guilford, J. P. (1973) Comments on Royce's paper. In: Multivariate analysis and psychological theory, ed. Royce, J. R.. New York: Academic Press. [HCL]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1977) Way beyond the IQ: guide to improving intelligence and creativity. Buffalo. Creative Education Foundation. [JPG]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1979) Cognitive psychology with a frame of reference. San Diego. EdITS. [JPG]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1980, in press) Cognitive styles: what are they? Educational and Psychological Measurement. [JPG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (in press) Crystallized and fluid intelligence: two fanciful concepts. Psychological Bulletin. [JPG]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. & Hoepfner, R. (1966) Creative potential as related to measures of IQ and verbal comprehension. Indian Journal of Psychology 41:7–16. [JPG]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1971) The analysis of intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. [JPG, RGS]Google Scholar
Guttman, L. (1954) A new approach to factor analysis: the radex. In: Mathematical thinking in the social sciences, ed. Lazarsfeld, P. E.. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Guyote, M. J. & Sternberg, R. J. (1978) A transitive-chain theory of syllogistic reasoning. NR 150–412 ONR Technical Report no. 5. New Haven: Department of Psychology, Yale University. [RJS]Google Scholar
Hakstian, A. R. & Cattell, R. B. (1974) The checking of primary ability structure on a broader basis of performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology 44:140–54. [PK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harman, H. H. (1967) Modern factor analysis. 2d ed. rev. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Holzinger, K. J. (1938) Relationships between three multiple orthogonal factors and four bifactors. Journal of Educational Psychology 29:513–19. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1967) On subjectivity in factor analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement 27:811–20. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1968) Organization of abilities and the development of intelligence. Psychological Review 75:242–59. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horn, J. L. (1974) Theory of functions represented among auditory and visual test performances. In: Multivariate analysis and psychological theory, ed. Royce, J. R.. New York: Academic Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1979) Trends in the measurement of intelligence. In: Human intelligence: perspectives on its theory and measurement, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K.. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. [RJS]Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (in press) Concepts of intellect in relation to learning and adult development. Intelligence. [RJS]Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. & Cattell, R. B. (1966) Refinement and test of the theory of fluid and crystallized general intelligences. Journal of Educational Psychology. 57:253–70. [CMM, HL, RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horn, J. L. & Knapp, J. R. (1973) On the subjective character of the empirical base of Guilford's structure-of-intellect model. Psychological Bulletin 80:33–43. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horst, P. (1965) Factor analysis of data matrices. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [HCL]Google Scholar
Humphreys, L. G. (1962) The organization of human abilities. American Psychologist 17:475–83. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, L. G. (1979) The construct of general intelligence. Intelligence 3:105–20. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, E. B. (1978) Mechanics of verbal ability. Psychological Review 85:109–30. [JBC, PK, CMM, RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, E. B. (1979) Intelligence as an information-processing construct. NR 154–398 ONR Technical Report no. 5. Seattle: Department of Psychology, University of Washington. [RJS]Google Scholar
Hunt, E. B. (1980a) The design of a robot mind: a theoretical approach to issues in intelligence. In: Intelligence and learning, ed Friedman, M., Connors, N., & Das, J. P.. New York: Plenum Press. [EH]Google Scholar
Hunt, E. B. (1980b, in press) Intelligence as an information processing concept. British Journal of Psychology. [EH]Google Scholar
Hunt, E. B.; Frost, N.; & Lunneborg, C. (1973) Individual differences in cognition: a new approach to intelligence. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 7, ed. Bower, G.. New York: Academic Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Hunt, E. B.; Lunneborg, C.; & Lewis, J. (1975) What does it mean to be high verbal? Cognitive Psychology 7:194–227. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, E. B. & Macleod, C. M. (1978) The sentence-verification paradigm: a case study of two conflicting approaches to individual differences. Intelligence 2:129–44. [CMM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1970) Hierarchical theories of mental ability. In: On intelligence, ed. Dockrell, W. B.. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. [CMM, RJS]Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1980) Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. [JBC]Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. & Munro, E. (1979) Reaction time, movement time, and intelligence. Intelligence 3:121–26. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jöreskog, K. G. (1970) A general method for analysis of covariance structures. Biometrika 57:2, 239–51. [JRF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jöreskog, K. G. & Sörbom, D. (1977) Statistical models and methods for analysis of longitudinal data. In: Latent variables in socioeconomic models, ed. Aigner, D. J. & Goldberger, A. S.. Amsterdam: North-Holland. [JRF]Google Scholar
Just, M. & Carpenter, P. (1980) Paper presented at ONR Contractor's meeting on Information Processing Abilities, University of Washington, Seattle. [JRF]Google Scholar
Kahneman, D. (1973) Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. [EH]Google Scholar
Kantowitz, B. (1974) Double stimulation. In: Human information processing: tutorials in performance and cognition, ed. Kantowitz, B.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [EH]Google Scholar
Kerlinger, F. N. & Pedhazur, E. J. (1973) Multiple regression in behavioral research. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [RJS]Google Scholar
Kline, P. (1979) Psychometrics and psychology. New York & London: Academic Press. [PK]Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. S. (1970) The structure of scientific revolutions. 2d ed. Chicago: Chicago University Press. [JRR]Google Scholar
Lansdell, H. (1971) A general intellectual factor affected by temporal lobe dysfunction. Journal of Clinical Psychology 27:182–84. [HCL]3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lansman, M. A. (1978) An attention approach to individual differences in immediate memory. Doctoral dissertation. University of Washington. [EH]Google Scholar
Larkin, J. (1979) Problem solving in physics: a hierarchical planning model. Unpublished manuscript. [RJS]Google Scholar
Luce, R. D. (1959) Individual choice behavior. New York: Wiley. [EH]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. (1979) On the time relations of mental processes: an examination of systems of processes in cascade. Psychological Review 86:287–330. [EH, HCL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macleod, C. M. (1979) Individual differences in learning and memory: a unitary information processing approach. Journal of Research in Personality 13:530–45. [CMM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macleod, C. M.; Hunt, E. B.; & Mathews, N. N. (1978) Individual differences in the verification of sentence-picture relationships. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 17:493–507. [CMM, RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNemar, Q. (1964) Lost: our intelligence? why? American Psychologist 19:871–82. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matarazzo, J. D. (1972) Wechsler's measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. [RJS]Google Scholar
Mathews, N. N.; Hunt, E. B.; & Macleod, C. M. (in press) Strategy choice and strategy training in sentence-picture verification. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaoior. [CMM]Google Scholar
Miller, G.; Galanter, E.; & Pribram, K. (1960) Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: H. Holt and Co. [ECB, JPG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mooney, C. M. (1960) Recognition of ambiguous and unambiguous visual configurations with short and longer exposures. British Journal of Psychology 51:119–25. [HCL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morton, J. (1969) Integration of information in word recognition. Psychological Review 76:165–78. [EH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morton, J. (1980) The logogen model and orthographic structures in spelling. In: Cognitive processes in spelling, ed. Frith, U.. London: Academic Press. [EH]Google Scholar
Mulholland, T. M.; Pellegrino, J. W.; Glaser, R. (in press) Components of geometric analogy solution. Cognitive Psychology. [RJS]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1967) Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. [ECB]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1976) Cognition and reality: principles and implications of cognitive psychology. San Francisco: Freeman. [RJS]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1979) The concept of intelligence. In: Human intelligence: perspectives on its theory and measurement, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K.. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. [RJS]Google Scholar
Newell, A. & Simon, H. (1972) Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. [EH, RJS]Google Scholar
Norman, G. R.; Jocoby, L. L.; Feightner, J. W.; & Campbell, E. J. M. (1979) Clinical experience and the structure of memory. Mimeographed report. [JRF]Google Scholar
Ornstein, P. A. & Corsale, K. (1979) Process and structure in children's memory. In: The functions of language and cognition, ed. Whitehurst, G. & Zimmerman, B.. New York: Academic Press. [JGB]Google Scholar
Pachella, R. G. (1974) The interpretation of reaction time in information-processing research. In: Human information processing: tutorials in performance and cognition, ed. Kantowitz, B. H.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Paivio, A. (1971) Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. [RJS]Google Scholar
Peck, V. (1980) Intelligence in the gifted. Masters thesis, University of Notre Dame. [JGB]Google Scholar
Pellegrino, J. W. & Glaser, R. (1979) Cognitive correlates and components in the analysis of individual differences. In: Human intelligence: perspectives on its theory and measurement, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K.. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. [HCL, CMM, RJS]Google Scholar
Pellegrino, J. W. & Glaser, R. (1980) Components of inductive reasoning. In: Aptitude, learning, and instruction: cognitive process analysis, ed. Snow, R. E., Federico, P.-A., & Montague, W.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Pellegrino, J. W. & Lyon, D. R. (1979) The components of a componential analysis. Intelligence 3:169–86. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Mitchell, R. (1967) Chronometric analysis of classification. Psychological Review 74:392–409. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pylyshyn, Z. (1980) Computation and cognition: issues in the foundations of cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1980 3:111–69 [EH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinton, G. & Fellows, B. (1975) “Perceptual” strategies in the solving of three-term series problems. British Journal of Psychology 66:69–78. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raven, J. C. (1965) Advanced progressive matrices, sets I and II. London: Lewis. [RJS]Google Scholar
Reitman, W. (1970) What does it take to remember? In: Models of human memory, ed. Norman, D. A.. New York: Academic Press. [ECB]Google Scholar
Resnick, L. B. & Glaser, R. (1976) Problem solving and intelligence. In: The nature of intelligence, ed. Resnick, L. B.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Royce, J. R. (1963) Factors as theoretical constructs. American Psychologist 18:522–27. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Royce, J. R. (1973) Multivariate analysis and psychological theory: the third Banff conference on theoretical psychology. London: Academic Press. [JRR]Google Scholar
Royce, J. R. (1976) Psychology is multi: Methodological, variate, epistemic, world-view, systemic, paradigmatic, theoretic, and disciplinary. In: Nebraska symposium on the conceptual foundations of theory and methods in psychology, ed. Arnold, W. J.. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. [JRR]Google Scholar
Royce, J. R. (1977) On the construct validity of open field measures. Psychological Bulletin 84:1098–1106. [JRR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Royce, J. R. (1979a) The factor-gene basis of individuality. In: Theoretical advances in behavior genetics, ed. Royce, J. R. & Mos, L. P.. Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands: Sijthoff & Noordhoff International Publishers. [JRR]Google Scholar
Royce, J. R. (1979b) Toward a viable theory of individual differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37:1927–31. [JRR, RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Royce, J. R. (1980) Factor analysis is alive and well. American Psychologist 35:390–92. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. (1977) Toward an interactive model of reading. In: Attention and performance, Vol. 6, ed. Dornic, S.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [JRF, RJS]Google Scholar
Schmid, J. & Leiman, J. M. (1957) The development of hierarchical factor solutions. Psychometrika 22:53–61. [JBC, HCL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, W. & Shiffrin, R. (1977) Controlled and automated human information processing I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review 84:1–66. [EH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schustack, M. W. & Sternberg, R. J. (in press) Evaluation of evidence in causal inference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sharp, S. E. (1898–99) Individual psychology: a study in psychological method. American Journal of Psychology 10:329–91. [NB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971) Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science 171:701–3. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snow, R. E. (1978) Eye fixation and strategy analyses of individual difference in cognitive aptitudes. In: Cognitive psychology and instruction, ed. Lesgold, A. M., Pellegrino, J. W., Fokkema, S. D., & Glaser, R.. New York: Plenum. [JRF]Google Scholar
Snow, R. E. (1979) Theory and method for research on aptitude processes. In: Human intelligence: perspectives on its theory and measurement, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K.. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. [RJS]Google Scholar
Spearman, C. (1904) General intelligence, objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15:201–93. [NB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spearman, C. (1923) The nature of “intelligence” and the principles of cognition. London: Macmillan. [RJS]Google Scholar
Spearman, C. (1927) The abilities of man. New York: Macmillan. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1977) Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning: the componential analysis of human abilities. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum. [JGB, JBC, JPG, EH, CMM, RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1978) Isolating the components of intelligence. Intelligence 2:117–28. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1978a) Intelligence research at the interface between differential and cognitive psychology. Intelligence 2:195–222. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1979a) Developmental patterns in the encoding and combination of logical connectives. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 28:469–98. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sternberg, R. J. (1979b) Intelligence research at the interface between differential and cognitive psychology: prospects and proposals. In: Human intelligence: perspectives on its theory and measurement, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K.. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1979c) The nature of mental abilities. American Psychologist 34:214–30. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1979d) A review of “Six authors in search of a character:” a play about intelligence tests in the year 2000. In: Human intelligence: perspectives on its theory and measurement, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K.. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1979e) Six authors in search of a character: a play about intelligence tests in the year 2000. Intelligence 3:281–91. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (in press, b) Factor theories of intelligence are all right almost. Educational Researcher. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (in press, c) Intelligence and nonentrenchment. Journal of Educational Psychology. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1980a) A proposed resolution of curious conflicts in the literature on linear syllogisms. In: Attention and performance VIII, ed. Nickerson, R.. Hills-dale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1980b) Representation and process in linear syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1980c) Toward a unified componential theory of human intelligence: I. Fluid ability. In: Intelligence and learning, ed. Friedman, M., Das, J., & O'connor, N.. New York: Plenum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1980d) Componentman as vice-president: a reply to Pellegrino and Lyon's analysis of “The components of a componential analysis.” Intelli 4:83–95. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1980e) The development of linear syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 29:340–56. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (in press, a) Cognitive-behavioral approaches to the training of intelligence in the retarded. Journal of Special Education. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (in press, b) Reasoning, problem solving, and intelligence. In: Handbook of human intelligence, ed. Sternberg, R. J.. New York: Cambridge University Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. & Gardner, M. K. (1979) Unities in inductive reasoning. NR 150–412 ONR Technical Report no. 18. New Haven: Department of Psychology, Yale University. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J.; Guyote, M. J.; & Turner, M. E. (1980) Deductive reasoning. In: Aptitude, learning, and instruction: cognitive process analysis, ed. Snow, R. E., Federico, P.-A., & Montague, W.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J.; Ketron, J. L.; & Powell, J. S. (in press) Componential approaches to the training of intelligent performance. Intelligence. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. & Nigro, G. (in press) Developmental patterns in the solution of verbal analogies. Child Development. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. & Powell, J. S. (in press) The development of intelligence. In Carmichael's manual of child psychology, ed. Mussen, P.. New York: Wiley. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. & Rifkin, B. (1979) The development of analogical reasoning processes. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 27:195–232. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sternberg, R. J. & Salter, W. (1980) Stalking the elusive homunculus: isolating the metacomponents of intelligence. Manuscript in preparation. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J.; Tourangeau, R.; & Nigro, G. (1979) Metaphor, induction, and social policy: the convergence of macroscopic and microscopic views. In: Metaphor and thought, ed. Ortony, A.. New York: Cambridge University Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. & Turner, M. E. (in press) Components of syllogistic reasoning. Acta Psychologica. [RJS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. & Weil, E. M. (1980) An aptitude-strategy interaction in linear syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology 72:226–34. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, S. (1969) The discovery of processing stages: extensions of Donders' method. Acta Psychologica 30:276–315. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroop, J. R. (1935) Studies of interference in serial verbal reaction. Journal of Experimental Psychology 18:643–662. [EH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1911) Animal intelligence: experimental studies. New York: Macmillan. [RJS]Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L.; Bregman, E. O.; Cobb, M. V.; & Woodyard, E. I. (1928) The measurement of intelligence. New York: Teachers College. [RJS]Google Scholar
Thurstone, L. L. (1938) Primary mental abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [NB, JRF, RJS]Google Scholar
Thurstone, L. L. (1947) Multiple factor analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Thurstone, L.L. & Thurstone, T. G. (1941) Factorial studies of intelligence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [JRF]Google Scholar
Tourangeau, R. & Sternberg, R. J. (in press) Aptness in metaphor. Cognitive Psychology. [EH, RJS]Google Scholar
Underwood, B. J. (1975) Individual differences as a crucible in theory construction. American Psychologist 30:128–34. [JGB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vernon, P. E. (1971) The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen. [RJS]Google Scholar
Vernon, P. E. (1973) Comment on Messick's paper. In: Multivariate analysis and psychological theory, ed. Royce, J. R.. New York: Academic Press. [HCL]Google Scholar
Vernon, P. E. (1979) Intelligence: heredity and environment. San Francisco: Freeman. [RJS]Google Scholar
Whitely, S. E. (1980) Latent trait models in the study of intelligence. Intelligence 4:97–132. [RJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wissler, C. (1901) The correlation of mental and physical tests. Psychological Review, Monograph Supplement 3, no. 6. [NB]Google Scholar
Witt, S. J. & Cunningham, W. R. (1979) Cognitive speed and subsequent intellectual development: longitudinal investigation. Journal of Gerontology 34:540–546. [HL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wober, M. (1974) Towards an understanding of the Kiganda concept of intelligence. In: Culture and cognition: readings in cross-cultural psychology, ed. Berry, J. W. & Dasen, P. R.. London: Methuen. [RJS]Google Scholar
Zigler, E. (1971) The retarded child as a whole person. In: Advances in experimental clinical psychology, vol. 1, ed. Adams, H. E. & Boardman, W. K., III. New York: Pergamon. [RJS]Google Scholar