Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T01:17:13.272Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Maltese cross: A new simplistic model for memory

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Donald E. Broadbent
Donald E. Broadbent
Affiliation:
Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford 0X1 3UD, England
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper puts forward a general framework for thought about human information processing. It is intended to avoid some of the problems of pipeline or stage models of function. At the same time it avoids the snare of supposing a welter of indefinitely many separate processes. The approach is not particularly original, but rather represents the common elements or presuppositions in a number of modern theories. These presuppositions are not usually explicit, however, and making them so reduces the danger of slipping back into earlier modes of thought.

The key point is to distinguish between persisting representations and the processes that translate one representation into another. Various classes or groups of persisting representations can be distinguished by the experimental treatments that interfere with them. In particular, there now seem to be several kinds of short-term or temporary storage, different from each other as well as from longterm memory; the translating processes also have several different modes or kinds. A particularly important aspect of the current position is that a model of this general type no longer requires some external agent to direct and control long sequences of behaviour.

Keywords

attentioncapacitycodecognitionfiltersinformationinterferencememorymodelrepresentationselectionstagesstorage
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 7 , Issue 1 , March 1984 , pp. 55 - 68
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1984

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alegria, J. & Bertelson, P. (1970) Time uncertainty, number of alternatives and particular signal-response pair as determinants of choice reaction time. Attention and performance, 3. Acta Psychologica 33:36–44. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allport, A. (1979) Word recognition in reading. In: Processing visible language, vol. 1, ed. Kolers, P. A., Wrolstad, M. E. & Bouma, H.. Plenum. [THC]Google Scholar
Allport, D. A. (1980) Patterns and actions. In: Cognitive psychology: New directions, ed. Claxton, G.. Routledge and Kegan Paul. [GC]Google Scholar
Allport, D. A., Antonis, B. & Reynolds, P. (1972) On the division of attention: A disproof of the single channel hypotheses. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 24:225–35. [rDEB, WS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. A. (1973) A theory for the recognition of items from short memorized lists. Psychological Review 85:249–77. [RGC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1976) Language, memory, and thought. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taDEB, THC, MM, PR]Google Scholar
Asarnow, R. F. & MacCrimmon, D. J. (1981) Span of apprehension deficits during the post-psychotic stages of schizophrenia. A replication and extension. Archives of General Psychiatry 38:1006–11. [EC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashby, G. F. (1982) Deriving exact predictions from the cascade model. Psychological Review 89:599–607. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 2, ed. Spence, K. W. & Spence, J. T.. Academic Press. [taDEB, RGC]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1978) The trouble with levels: A re-examination of Craik and Lockhart's framework for memory research. Psychological Review 85:139–52. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1981) The concept of working memory: A view of its current state and probable future development. Cognition 10:17–23. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baddeley, A. D. & Hitch, G. (1974) Working memory. In: The psychology of learning and motication, vol. 8, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [taDEB, THC]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. & Hitch, G. (1977) Recency re-examined. In: Attention and performance, vol. 6, ed. Domic, S.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. & Lieberman, K. (1980) Spatial working memory. In: Attention and performance, vol. 8, ed. Nickerson, R. S.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., Thomson, N. & Buchanan, M. (1975) Word length and the structure of short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behacior 14:575–89. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartlett, F. C. (1932) Remembering. Cambridge University Press. [JGS]Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F. & Emery, G. (1979) Cognitice therapy of depression. Guildford Press. [MM]Google Scholar
Becker, C. A. (1979) Semantic context and word frequency effects in visual word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 5:252–59. [taDEB, SS]Google ScholarPubMed
Becker, C. A. (1980) Semantic context effects in visual word recognition: An analysis of semantic strategies. Memory and Cognition 8:493–512. [THC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker, C. A. & Killion, T. H. (1977) Interaction of visual and cognitive effects in word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 3:389–401. [taDEB, SS]Google Scholar
Bernstein, I. H. & Segal, E. M. (1968) Set and temporal integration. Perception and Psychophysics 4:233–36. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boring, E. G. (1957) A history of experimental psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [JGS]Google Scholar
Bower, G. H. (1981) Mood and memory. American Psychologist 36:129–48. [MM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(in press) Affect and memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B. [MM]Google Scholar
Bower, G. H., Clark, M. C., Lesgold, A. M. & Winzenz, D. (1969) Hierarchical retrieval schemes in recall of categorized word lists. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behacior 8:323–43. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bransford, J. D. & Johnson, M. K. (1973) Considerations of some problems of comprehension. In: Visual information processing, ed. Chase, W. G.. Academic Press. [THC]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1954) The role of auditory localisation in attention and memory span. Journal of Experimental Psychology 47:191–96. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E. (1956) Successive responses to simultaneous stimuli. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 8:145–52. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1957) A mechanical model for human attention and immediate memory. Psychological Review 64:205–15. [taDEB, WS, JGS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E. (1958) Perception and communication. Pergamon. [rDEB, THC, KMS, SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1967) The word-frequency effect and response bias. Psychological Review 74:1–15. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E. (1971) Decision and stress. Academic Press. [rDEB, KMS]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1975) The magic number seven after fifteen years. In: Studies in long term memory, ed. Kennedy, A. & Wilkes, A.. John Wiley. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1977) The hidden pre-attentive processes. American Psychologist 32:109–18. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1981a) From the percept to the cognitive structure. In Attention and performance, vol. 9, ed. Baddeley, A. D. & Long, J.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taDEB, MM]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1981b) Selective and control processes. Cognition 10:53–58. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E. (1982) Task combination and selective intake of information. Acta Psychologica 50:253–90. [tarDEB, SS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E. ed. (1983) Functional aspects of human memory. Royal Society. [rDEB]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. & Aston, B. (1978) Human control of a simulated economic system. Ergonomics 21:1035–43. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. & Broadbent, M. H. P. (1981a) Articulatory suppression and the grouping of successive stimuli. Psychological Research 43:57–67. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. & Broadbent, M. H. P. (1981b) Recency effects in visual memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A33:l–15. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E., Cooper, P. J. & Broadbent, M. H. P. (1978) A comparison of hierarchical and matrix retrieval schemes in recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 4:486–97. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E., Cooper, P. J., FitzGerald, P. F. & Parkes, K. R. (1982) The cognitive failures questionnaire (CFQ) and its correlates. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 21:1–16. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E., Cooper, P. J., Frankish, C. R. & Broadbent, M. H. P. (1980) Modality differences in relation to grouping in immediate recall. British Journal of Psychology 71:475–85. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E., FitzGerald, P. & Broadbent, M. H. P. (1982) Conscious and unconscious judgment in the control of complex systems. Manuscript available in British Library R&DD Experimental Electronic Journal “Computer Human Factors.” [taDEB]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. & Gregory, M. H. P. (1967) Psychological refractory period and the length of time required to make a decision. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B 168:181–92. [rDEB]Google ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E., Vines, R. & Broadbent, M. H. P. (1978) Recency effects in memory as a function of modality of intervening events. Psychological Research 40:5–13. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, L. R. (1967) The suppression of visualization by reading. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 19:289–99. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks, L. R. (1968) Spatial and verbal components of the act of recall. Canadian Journal of Psychology 22:349–68. [THC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, A. L. (1975) The development of memory: Knowing, knowing about knowing, and knowing how to know. In: Advances in child development and behavior, vol. 10, ed. Reese, H. W.. Academic Press. [THC]Google Scholar
Butterfield, E. C. & Belmont, J. M. (1971) Relations of storage and retrieval strategies as short-term memory processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology 89:319–28. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callaway, E. (in press) The pharmacology of human information processing. Psychophysiology. [EC]Google Scholar
Callaway, E. & Naghdi, S. (1982) An information processing model for schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 39:339–47. [EC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, R. & Dodd, B. (1980) Hearing by eye. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 32:85–100. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carr, T. H. (1979) Consciousness in models of information processing: Primary memory, executive control, and input regulation. In: Aspects of consciousness, ed. Underwood, G. & Stevens, R.. Academic Press. [THC]Google Scholar
(in press) Perceiving visual language. In: Handbook of perception and human performance, ed. Kaufman, L., Thomas, J. & Boff, K.. John Wiley. [THC]Google Scholar
Carr, T. H. & Bacharach, V. R. (1976) Perceptual tuning and conscious attention: Systems of input regulation in visual information processing. Cognition 4:281–302. [THC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, T. H., Davidson, B. J. & Hawkins, H. L. (1978) Perceptual flexibility in word recognition: Strategies affect orthographic computation but not lexical access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 4:674–90. [THC]Google Scholar
Cermak, L. S. & Craik, F. I. M., eds. (1979) Levels of processing in human memory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taDEB, HLR]Google Scholar
Clark, D. M. & Teasdale, J. D. (in preparation) Constraints on the effects of mood on memory. [MM]Google Scholar
Clark, D. M., Teasdale, J. D., Broadbent, D. E. & Martin, M. (in press) Effect of mood on lexical decisions. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, [MM]Google Scholar
Cohen, G. & Freeman, R. (1978) Individual differences in reading strategies in relation to cerebral asymmetry. In: Attention and performance, vol. 7, ed. Requin, J.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Cohen, R. L. & Granström, R. (1970) Reproduction and recognition in short-term visual memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 22:450–57. [HLR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conrad, R. (1964) Acoustic confusion in immediate memory. British Journal of Psychology 55:75–84. [THC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conrad, R. (1972) Short-term memory in the deaf: A test for speech coding. British Journal of Psychology 63:173–80. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conrad, R. (1979) The deaf school child. Harper and Row. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. & Lockhart, R. S. (1972) Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11:671–84. [taDEB, HLR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crowder, R. G. (1976) Principles of learning and memory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [RGC]Google Scholar
Crowder, R. G. (1978) Mechanisms of auditory backward masking in the stimulus suffix effect. Psychological Review 85:502–24. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowder, R. G. (1982) The demise of short-term memory. Ada Psychologica 50:291–326. [rDEB, RGC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowder, R. G. & Morton, J. (1969) Precategorical acoustic storage (PAS). Perception and Psychophysics 5:365–73. [taDEB, RGC, HLR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalezman, J. J. (1976) Effects of output order on immediate, delayed and final recall performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 2:597–608. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Dennis, I. (1977) Component problems in dichotic listening. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 29:437–50. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, J. (1980) The locus of interference in the perception of simultaneous stimuli. Psychological Review 87:272–300. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan-Johnson, C. & Kopell, B. (1981) The Stroop effect: Brain potentials localize the source of interference. Science 214:938–40. [EC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eich, J. M. (1982) A composite holographic associative recall model. Psychological Review 89:627–61. [EFL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erman, L. & Lesser, V. (1975) A multi-level organization for problem solving using many, diverse, cooperating sources of knowledge. Advance Papers of the Fourth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, vol. 2, pp. 483–90. [EFL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estes, W. K. (1975) The locus of inferential and perceptual processes in letter identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 104:122–45. [THC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felsten, G. & Wasserman, G. S. (1978) Masking by light in Limulus receptors. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 92:778–84. [GSW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felsten, G. & Wasserman, G. S. (1979a) Masking-induced sensitivity changes in Limulus photoreceptors. Vision Research 19:943–45. [GSW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Felsten, G. & Wasserman, G. S. (1979b) The photoreceptor sensory code for pattern identification during visual masking. Sensory Processes 3:230–39. [GSW]Google ScholarPubMed
Felsten, G. & Wasserman, G. S. (1980) Visual masking: Mechanisms and theories. Psychological Bulletin 2:329–53. [GSW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felsten, G. & Wasserman, G. S. (1981) The photoreceptor sensory code for perceived duration during visual masking. Physiological Psychology 9:68–76. [GSW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisk, A. D. & Schneider, W. (1983) Category and word search: Generalizing search principles to complex processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 9:177–95. [WS]Google ScholarPubMed
Fodor, J. A. (1975) The language of thought. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. [KMS]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1983) The modularity of mind. Bradford Books, MIT Press. [GC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, J. M., Pfefferbaum, A., Tinklenberg, J. R. & Kopell, B. S. (1982) Effects of perceptual and cognitive difficulty on P3 and RT in young and old subjects. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 54:311–21. [EC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, J. (1980) Making decisions under the influence of memory. Psychological Review 87:190–211. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankish, C. R. (1976) Organisational factors in short term memory. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Freeman, W. J. & Schneider, W. (1982) Changes in spatial patterns of rabbit olfactory EEG with conditioning to odors. Psychophysiology 19:44–56. [EC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, A., Poison, M. C., Dafoe, C. F. & Gaskill, S. J. (1982) Dividing attention within and between hemispheres testing a multiple resources approach to limited-capacity information processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 8:625–50. [taDEB]Google ScholarPubMed
Gardiner, J. & Gregg, V. (1979) When auditory memory is not over-written. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 18:705–19. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerrig, R. J. & Bower, G. H. (1982) Emotional influences on word recognition. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 19:197–200. [MM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gevins, A. S., Schaffer, R. E., Doyle, J. C., Cutillo, B. A., Tannehill, R. S. & Bressler, S. L. (1983) Shadows of thought: Shifting lateralization of human brain electrical patterns during brief visuomotor task. Science 220:97–99. [EC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glanzer, M. & Cunitz, A. R. (1966) Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 5:351–60. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwald, A. G. & Shulman, H. G. (1973) On doing two things at once: II. Elimination of the psychological refractory period. Journal of Experimental Psychology 101:70–76. [rDEB, WS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Havens, W. S. & Mackworth, A. K. (1983) Representing knowledge of the visual world. IEEE Computer, in press. [AKM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes-Roth, B. & Hayes-Roth, F. (1979) A cognitive model of planning. Cognitive Science 3:275–310. [EFL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1949) The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. John Wiley. [RGC]Google Scholar
Henderson, L. (1982) Orthography and word recognition in reading. Academic Press. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Hinton, G. E. & Anderson, J. A., eds. (1981) Parallel models of associatite memory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [EC, AKM]Google Scholar
Hirst, W., Spelke, E. S., Reaves, C. C., Caharack, G. & Neisser, U. (1980) Dividing attention without alternation or automaticity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 109:98–117. [tarDEB, WH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hitch, G. & Baddeley, A. D. (1976) Verbal reasoning and working memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 28:603–21. [tarDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulme, C. (1979) The interaction of visual and motor memory for graphic forms following tracing. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 31:249–61. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hulme, C. (1981) Reading retardation and multi-sensory teaching. Routledge and Kegan Paul. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. & Dallas, M. (1981) On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 110:306–40. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, W. (1890) Principles of psychology. Holt. [DJM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jastrow, J. (1890) The time-relations of mental phenomena. N. D. C. Hodges. [SS]Google ScholarPubMed
Jones, G. V. (1976) A fragmentation hypothesis of memory: Cued recall of pictures and of sequential position. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 105:277–93. [taDEB, MM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, G. V. (1978) Tests of a structural theory of the memory trace. British Journal of Psychology 69:351–67. [taDEB, MM, JM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, G. V. (1979) Multirate forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 5:98–114. [taDEB, MM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, G. V. (in press) Structure of the recall process. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B. [MM]Google Scholar
Kahneman, D. (1973) Attention and effort. Prentice-Hall. [WS]Google Scholar
Kahneman, D. & Treisman, A. (1983) Changing views of attention and automaticity. In: Varieties of attention, ed. Parasuraman, R., Davies, R. & Beatty, J.. Academic Press. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Keele, S. W. & Neill, W. T. (1979). Mechanisms of attention. In: Handbook of perception, vol. 9, ed. Carterette, E. C. & Friedman, M. P.. Academic Press. [THC]Google Scholar
Kleiman, G. (1975) Speech recoding in reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 14:323–39. [THC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kolers, P. A. (1975) Memorial consequences of automatized encoding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1:680–701. [HLR]Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. (1979a) A pattern-analyzing basis of recognition. In: Levels of processing in human memory, ed. Cermak, L. S. & Craik, F. I. M.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [HLR]Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. (1979b) Reading and knowing. Canadian Journal of Psychology 33:106–17. [RGC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kolers, P. A. & Roediger, H. L. (in press) Procedures of mind. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. [HLR]Google Scholar
Lachman, R., Lachman, J. L. & Butterfield, E. C. (1979) Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [THC]Google Scholar
Lashlcy, K. S. (1951) The problem of serial order in behavior. In: Cerebral mechanisms in behavior, ed. Jeffress, L. A.. John Wiley. [JGS]Google Scholar
Levy, B. A. (1971) The role of articulation in auditory and verbal short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 10:123–32. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1979) Eyewitness testimony. Harvard University Press. [EFL]Google Scholar
Loftus, G. R. & Loftus, E. F. (1976) Human memory: The processing of information. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [EFL]Google Scholar
Logan, G. D. (1978) Attention in character-classification tasks: Evidence for the automaticity of component stages. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107:32–63. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logan, G. D. (1980) Short-term memory demands of reaction-time tasks that differ in complexity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 6:375–89. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarthy, G. & Donchin, E. (1981) A metric for thought: A comparison of P3 latency and reaction time. Science 211:77–80. [EC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClelland, J. L. (1979) On the time relations of mental processes: An examination of systems of processes in cascade. Psychological Review 86:287–330. [taDEB, THC, SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCulloch, W. S. (1965) Embodiments of mind. MIT Press. [EC]Google Scholar
MacKay, D. M. (1969) Information, mechanism and meaning. MIT Press. [KMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackworth, A. K. (1978) Vision research strategy: Black magic, metaphors, mechanisms, miniworlds and maps. In: Computer vision systems, ed. Hanson, A. R. & Riseman, E. M.. Academic Press. [AKM]Google Scholar
MacLeod, C. M., Hunt, E. B. & Mathews, N. N. (1978) Individual differences in the verification of sentence-picture relationships. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 17:493–507. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marr, D. (1982) Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. W. H. Freeman and Co. [rDEB, AKM, PR]Google Scholar
Martin, M. (1978) Speech recoding in silent reading. Memory and Cognition 6:108–14. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, M. & Clark, D. M. (in preparation) Affective state and distortion in retrieval. [MM]Google Scholar
Martin, M. & Jones, G. V. (1979) Modality dependence of loss of recency in free recall. Psychological Research 40:273–89. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, M., Ward, J. C. & Clark, D. M. (in press) Neuroticism and the recall of positive and negative personality information. Behaviour Research and Therapy. [MM]Google Scholar
Melton, A. W. & Lackum, W. J. von (1941) Retroactive and proactive inhibition in retention: Evidence for a two-factor theory of retroactive inhibition. American Journal of Psychology 54:157–73. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, D. E., Schvaneveldt, R. W. & Ruddy, M. G. (1975) Loci of contextual effects on visual word recognition. In: Attention and performance, vol. 5, ed. Rabbitt, P. M. A. & Dornic, S.. Academic Press. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Meyer, D. L., Yantis, S., Osman, A. & Smith, J. E. K. (in press) Discrete versus continuous models of response preparation: A reaction-time analysis. In: Preparatory states and processes, ed. Kornblum, S. & Requin, J.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [SS]Google Scholar
Miller, J. (1982) Discrete vs. continuous stage models of human information processing: In search of partial output. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 8:273–96. [SS]Google Scholar
Monsell, S. (1978) Recency, immediate recognition memory, and reaction time. Cognitive Psychology 10:465–501. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monsell, S. (1983) Components of working memory underlying verbal skills: A distributed capacities view. In: Attention and performance, vol. 10, Control of language processes, ed. Bouma, H. & Bouwhuis, D. G.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [rDEB, GC]Google Scholar
Morton, J. (1969) The interaction of information in word recognition. Psychological Review 76:165–78. [taDEB, JM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morton, J. (1979) Facilitation in word recognition experiments causing change in the logogen model. In: Processing of visible language, ed. Kolers, P. A., Wrolstad, M. E. & Bouma, H.. Plenum Publishing. [JM]Google Scholar
Morton, J. & Chambers, S. M. (1973) Selective attention to words and colours. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 25:387–97. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morton, J. & Patterson, K. (1980) A new attempt at an interpretation. In: Deep dyslexia, ed. Coltheart, M., Patterson, K. & Marshall, J. C.. Routledge and Kegan Paul. [JM]Google Scholar
Murray, D. J. (1968) Articulation and acoustic confusability in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology 78:679–84. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navon, D. (1977) Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in perception. Cognitive Psychology 9:353–83. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navon, D. & Gopher, D. (1979) On the economy of the human information processing system: A model of multiple capacity. Psychological Review 86:214–25. [rDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neisser, U. (1967) Cognitive psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [taDEB, THC, JGS]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1976) Cognition and reality. W. H. Freeman & Co. [THC, AKM]Google Scholar
Newell, A. & Simon, H. A. (1972) Human problem solving. Prentice-Hall. [taDEB, THC, AKM]Google Scholar
Norman, D. A. & Bobrow, D. G. (1976) On the analysis of performance operating characteristics. Psychological Review 83:508–19. [rDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norman, D. A., Rumelhart, D. E. & the LNR Research Group (1975) Explorations in cognition. W. H. Freeman and Co. [PR]Google Scholar
Ollman, R. T. (1968) Central refractoriness in simple reaction time: The deferred processing model. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 5:49–60. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paap, K. R. & Ogden, W. C. (1981) Letter encoding is an obligatory but capacity-demanding operation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 7:518–27. [rDEB, THC]Google Scholar
Palmer, S. E. (1978) Fundamental aspects of cognitive representation. In: Cognition and categorization, ed. Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [THC]Google Scholar
Penney, C. G. (1979) Interaction of suffix effects with suffix delay and recall modality in serial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 5:507–21. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Phillips, W. A. & Christie, D. F. M. (1977a) Components of visual memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 29:117–34. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, W. A. & Christie, D. F. M. (1977b) Interference with visualization. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 29:637–50. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pieters, J. P. M. (1983) Steinberg's additive factor method and underlying psychological processes: Some theoretical considerations. Psychological Bulletin 93:411–26. [THC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, M. I. (1978) Chronometric explorations of mind. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taDEB, THC]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Konick, A. F. (1966) On the role of interference in short-term retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology 72:221–31. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posner, M. I. & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975) Attention and cognitive control. In: Theories in information processing, ed. Solso, R. L.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [THC]Google Scholar
Rabbitt, P. M. A. (1967) Learning to ignore irrelevant information. American Journal of Psychology 80:1–13. [rDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rabbitt, P. M. A. (1982) Visual search. In: Handbook of research methods in human memory and cognition, ed. Puff, C. R.. Academic Press. [WS]Google Scholar
Ratcliff, R. (1978) A theory of memory retrieval. Psychological Review 85:59–108. [rDEB, RGC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reason, J. T. (1983) Lapses of attention. In: Varieties of attention, ed. Parasuraman, R., Davies, R. & Beatty, J.. Academic Press. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. (1980) Memory metaphors in cognitive psychology. Memory and Cognition 8:231–46. [taDEB, RGC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Routh, D. (1976) An “across-the-board” modality effect in immediate serial recall. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 28:285–304. [tarDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. (1977) Toward an interactive model of reading. In: Attention and performance, vol. 6, ed. Dornic, S.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [THC]Google Scholar
Saccuzzo, D. P. & Braff, D. L. (1981) Early information processing deficit in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 38:175–82. [EC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salame, P. & Baddeley, A. D. (1982) Disruption of short-term memory by unattended speech: Implications for the structure of working memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21:150–64. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, A. F. (1983) Towards a model of stress and human performance. Acta Psychologica 53:61–97. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schacter, D. L. (1982) Stranger behind the engram: Theories of memory and the psychology of science. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [DJM]Google Scholar
Schank, R. C. (1982) Dynamic memory. Cambridge University Press. [PR]Google Scholar
Schneider, W. (1983) A distributed processing architecture for attention and skill development. Paper presented at Midwestern Psychological Association meetings, Chicago. [WS]Google Scholar
Schneider, W. & Fisk, A. D. (1982) Concurrent automatic and controlled visual search: Can processing occur without resource cost? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 8:261–78. [rDEB, WS]Google Scholar
Schneider, W. & Fisk, A. D. (1983) Attention theory and mechanisms for skilled performance. In: Memory and control of action, ed. Magill, R. A.. North-Holland. [WS]Google Scholar
(in press) Automatic category search and its transfer: Automatic process semantic filtering. [WS]Google Scholar
Schneider, W. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) Controlled and automatic human information processing: 1. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review 84:1–66. [tarDEB, THC, WH, WS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schvaneveldt, R. W. & McDonald, J. E. (1981) Semantic context and the encoding of words: Evidence for two modes of stimulus analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 7:673–87. [THC]Google Scholar
Schwartz, M. F., Saffran, E. M. & Marin, O. S. M. (1980) Fractionating the reading process in dementia: Evidence for word-specific point-to-sound associations. In: Deep dyslexia, ed. Coltheart, M., Patterson, K. & Marshall, J. C.. Routledge and Kegan Paul. [JM]Google Scholar
Shaffer, W. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1972) Rehearsal and storage of visual information. Journal of Experimental Psychology 92:292–96. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shallice, T. (1979) Neuropsychological research and the fractionation of memory systems. In: Perspectives in memory research, ed. Nilsson, L. G.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Shaw, M. L. (1978) A capacity allocation model for reaction time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 4:586–98. [SS]Google Scholar
Shiffrin, R. M. (1975) The locus and role of attention in memory systems. In: Attention and perfonnance, vol. 5, ed. Rabbitt, P. M. A. & Domic, S.. Academic Press. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Shiffrin, R. M. & Schneider, W. (1977) Controlled and automatic human information processing: 2. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review 84:127–90. [tarDEB, THC, WH, WS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sperling, G. (1960) The information available in brief visual presentation. Psychological Monographs 74, whole no. 498. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sperling, G. (1967) Successive approximations to a model for short-term memory. Acta Psychologica 27:285–92. [RGC, EFL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. & Pachella, R. G. (1977) Encoding, stimulus-response compatibility, and stages of processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfonnance 3:411–21. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Steinberg, R. J. (1980) Representation and process in linear syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Genera1 109:119–59. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. & Weil, E. M. (1980) An aptitude-strategy interaction in linear syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology 72:226–39. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, S. (1969a) The discovery of processing stages: Extensions of Donders' method. In: Attention and performance, vol. 2, ed. Koster, W. G.. North-Holland. [taDEB, PR, WS, SS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. (1969b) Memory-scanning: Mental processes revealed by reaction-time experiments. American Scientist 57:421–57. [SS]Google ScholarPubMed
Sternberg, S. (1975) Memory-scanning: New findings and current controversies. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 27:1–32. [EC, SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, S., Monsell, S., Knoll, R. L. & Wright, C. E. (1978) The latency and duration of rapid movement sequences: Comparisons of speech and typing. In: Information processing in motor control and learning, ed. Stelmach, G. E.. Academic Press. [SS]Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. & Scarborough, D. L. (1971) Parallel testing of stimuli in visual search. In: Visual information processing and control of motor acticity. Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. [SS]Google Scholar
Swinney, D. A. & Taylor, O. L. (1971) Short-term memory recognition search in aphasies. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 14:578–88. [SS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teasdale, J. D. (in press) Affect and accessibility. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B. [MM]Google Scholar
Teasdale, J. D. & Fennell, M. J. V. (1982) Immediate effects on depression of cognitive therapy interventions. Cognitive Therapy and Research 6:343–51. [MM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teasdale, J. D. & Russell, M. L. (in press) Differential effects of induced mood on recall of positive, negative and neutral words. British Journal of Clinical Psychology. [MM]Google Scholar
Ternes, W. [ Yuille, J. C. (1972) Words and pictures in an STM task. Journal of Experimental Psychology 96:78–86. [HLR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treisman, A. & Gelade, G. (1980) A feature integration theory of attention. Cognitive Psychology 12:97–136. [rDEB, THC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tulving, E. & Bower, G. H. (1974) The logic of memory representations. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 8, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [HLR]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. & Thomson, D. M. (1973) Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review 80:352–73. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Underwood, G. (1978) Strategies of information processing. Academic Press. [THC]Google Scholar
Uttley, A. M. (1979) Information transmission in the nercous system. Academic Press. [rDEB]Google Scholar
Watkins, M. J. & Todres, A. K. (1980) Suffix effects manifest and concealed: Further evidence for a 20-second echo. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19:46–53. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkins, O. C. & Watkins, M. J. (1977) Serial recall and the modality effect: Effects of word frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 3:712–18. [taDEB]Google Scholar
Watkins, O. C. & Watkins, M. J. (1980) The modality effect and echoic persistence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 109:251–78. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welford, A. T. (1968) Fundamentals of skill. Methuens. [PR]Google Scholar
Welford, A. T. (1980) The single-channel hypothesis. In: Reaction times, ed. Welford, A. T.. Academic Press. [SS]Google Scholar
Wickens, C. D. (1980) The structure of attentional resources. In: Attention and performance, vol. 8, ed.Nickerson, R. S.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taDEB, THC, WS]Google Scholar
Wilhite, S. (1981) Word-frequency cuing effects: Recognition and encoding interference factors. American Journal of Psychology 94:323–39. [taDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winograd, T. (1972) Understanding natural language. Edinburgh University Press. [rDEB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winograd, T. & Cowan, J. D. (1963) Reliable computation in the presence of noise. MIT Press. [rDEB]Google Scholar
Young, G. D. C. & Martin, M. (1981) Processing of information about self by neurotics. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 20:205–12. [MM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, R. M. (1978) Strategies and the structure of a cognitive skill. In: Strategies of information processing, ed. Underwood, G.. Academic Press. [taDEB]Google Scholar