Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T17:27:00.622Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 August 2009

John Archer
John Archer
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, United Kingdom. [email protected]://www.uclan.ac.uk/scitech/research/rae2008/psychology/staff_profiles/jarcher.php
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

I argue that the magnitude and nature of sex differences in aggression, their development, causation, and variability, can be better explained by sexual selection than by the alternative biosocial version of social role theory. Thus, sex differences in physical aggression increase with the degree of risk, occur early in life, peak in young adulthood, and are likely to be mediated by greater male impulsiveness, and greater female fear of physical danger. Male variability in physical aggression is consistent with an alternative life history perspective, and context-dependent variability with responses to reproductive competition, although some variability follows the internal and external influences of social roles. Other sex differences, in variance in reproductive output, threat displays, size and strength, maturation rates, and mortality and conception rates, all indicate that male aggression is part of a sexually selected adaptive complex. Physical aggression between partners can be explained using different evolutionary principles, arising from the conflicts of interest between males and females entering a reproductive alliance, combined with variability following differences in societal gender roles. In this case, social roles are particularly important since they enable both the relatively equality in physical aggression between partners from Western nations, and the considerable cross-national variability, to be explained.

Keywords

aggressionpartner violencesex differencessexual selectionsocial role theory
Type
Main Articles
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 32 , Issue 3-4 , August 2009 , pp. 249 - 266
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Addison, W. E. (1989) Beardedness as a factor in perceived masculinity. Perceptual and Motor Skills 68:921–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, R. D., Hoogland, J. L., Howard, R. D., Noonan, K. M. & Sherman, P. W. (1979) Sexual dimorphisms and breeding systems in pinnipeds, ungulates, primates, and humans. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W., pp. 402–35. Duxbury Press.Google Scholar
Andersson, M. (1994) Sexual selection. Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Apicella, C. L., Feinberg, D. R. & Marlowe, F. W. (2007) Voice pitch predicts reproductive success in male hunter gatherers. Biological Letters 3:682–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (1988) The behavioural biology of aggression. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Archer, J. (1992a) Childhood gender roles: Social context and organisation. In: Childhood social development: Contemporary perspectives, ed. McGurk, H., pp. 31–61. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Archer, J. (1994) Violence between men. In: Male violence, ed. Archer, J., pp. 121–40. Routledge.Google Scholar
Archer, J. (1996) Sex differences in social behavior: Are the social role and evolutionary explanations compatible? American Psychologist 51:909–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (1999) Assessment of the reliability of the Conflict Tactics Scales: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14:1263–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (2000a) Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin 126:651–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (2000b) Sex differences in partner aggression: A reply to Frieze (2000), O'Leary (2000) and White, Smith, Koss, and Figueredo (2000). Psychological Bulletin 126:697–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (2002) Sex differences in physically aggressive acts between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior: A Review Journal 7:313–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (2004) Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology 8:291–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (2006a) Cross-cultural differences in physical aggression between partners: A social-role analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10:113–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (2006b) Testosterone and human aggression: An evaluation of the challenge hypothesis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30:319–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (submitted) Derivation and assessment of a hypermasculine values questionnaire.Google Scholar
Archer, J. & Côté, S. (2005) Sex differences in aggressive behavior: A developmental and evolutionary perspective. In: Developmental origins of aggression, ed. Tremblay, R., Hartup, W. W. & Archer, J., pp. 425–43. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Archer, J. & Coyne, S. M. (2005) An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review 8:212–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. & Lloyd, B. B. (2002) Sex and gender, 2nd edition.Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. & Mehdikhani, M. (2003) Variability among males in sexually-selected attributes. Review of General Psychology 7:219–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. & Thanzami, V. L. (2007) The relation between physical aggression, size and strength, among a sample of young Indian men. Personality and Individual Differences 43:627–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baillargeon, R. H., Zoccolillo, M., Keenan, K., Côté, S., Pérusse, D., Wu, H.-X., Boivin, M. & Tremblay, R. E. (2007) Gender differences in physical aggression: A prospective population-based survey of children before and after 2 years of age. Developmental Psychology 43(1):1326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (1973) Aggression: A social learning analysis. Holt/ Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Bateman, A. J. (1948) Intrasexual selection in Drosophila. Heredity 2:349–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Battié, M. C., Bigos, S. J., Fisher, L. D., Hansson, T. H., Jones, M. E. & Wortley, M. D. (1989) Isometric lifting strength as a predictor of industrial back pain reports. Spine 14:851–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker, D. V., Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., Blackwell, K. C. & Smith, D. M. (2007) The confounded nature of angry men and happy women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92:179–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benenson, J. F., Carder, H. P. & Geib-Cole, S. J. (2008) The development of boys' preferential pleasure in physical aggression. Aggressive Behavior 34:154–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berenbaum, S. A. & Resnick, S. M. (1997) Early androgen effects on aggression in children and adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 22:505–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berkowitz, L. (1993) Aggression: Its causes, consequences and control. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Bettencourt, B. A. & Kernahan, C. (1997) A meta-analysis of aggression in the presence of violent cues: Effects of gender differences and aversive provocations. Aggressive Behavior 23:447–56.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bettencourt, B. A. & Miller, N. (1996) Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 119:422–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Betzig, L. (1986) Despotism and differential reproduction: A Darwinian view of history. Aldine.Google Scholar
Betzig, L. (1992) Roman polygyny. Ethology and Sociobiology 13:309–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjorklund, D. J. & Pellegrini, A. D. (2000) Child development and evolutionary psychology. Child Development 71:1687–708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Björkqvist, K. (1994) Sex differences in physical, verbal and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles 30:177–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Björkqvist, K., Österman, K. & Lagerspetz, K. (1994) Sex differences in covert aggression among adults. Aggressive Behavior 20:27–33.3.0.CO;2-Q>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blurton Jones, N. (1972) Categories of child-child interaction. In: Ethological studies of child behaviour, ed. Blurton Jones, N., pp. 97–127. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Book, A. S., Starzyk, K. B. & Quinsey, V. L. (2001) The relationship between testosterone and aggression: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior: A Review Journal 6:579–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boulton, M. J. (1994) The relationship between playful and aggressive fighting in children, adolescents and adults. In: Male violence, ed. Archer, J., pp. 23–41. Routledge.Google Scholar
Brennan, L., McDonald, J. & Shlomowitz, R. (1997) Sex differences in Indian height at home and abroad. Man in India 77:105–18.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1996) The evolutionary theory of human social strategies. In: Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles, ed. Higgins, E. T. & Kruglanski, A. W., pp. 3–38. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bussey, K. & Bandura, A. (1999) Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review 106:676–713.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrnes, J. P., Miller, D. C. & Schafer, W. D. (1999) Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 125:367–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A. (1995) A few good men: Evolutionary psychology and female adolescent aggression. Ethology and Sociobiology 16:99–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A. (1999) Staying alive: Evolution, culture and women's intra-sexual aggression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22:203–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A. (2006) Sex differences in direct aggression: What are the psychological mediators? Aggression and Violent Behavior 11:237–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A. & Muncer, S. (1994) Sex differences in aggression: Social representations and social roles. British Journal of Social Psychology 33:233–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, A., Muncer, S. & Gorman, B. (1993) Sex and social representations of aggression: A communal-agentic analysis. Aggressive Behavior 19:125–35.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A., Shirley, L. & Caygill, L. (2002) Sex-typed preferences in three domains: Do two-year-olds need cognitive variables? British Journal of Psychology 93:203–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, D. W. & Eaton, W. O. (1999) Sex differences in the activity level of infants. Infant and Child Development 8:1–17.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, J. C. (1992) Wife-battering: Cultural contexts versus Western social sciences. In: Sanctions and sanctuary: Cultural perspectives on the beating of wives, ed. Counts, D. A., Brown, J. K. & Campbell, J. C., pp. 229–49. Westview.Google Scholar
Carré, J. M. & McCormick, C. M. (2008) In your face: Facial metrics predict aggressive behaviour in the laboratory and in varsity and professional hockey players. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 275:2651–56. Available at:http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/h80173234257qq01/Google ScholarPubMed
Chagnon, N. A. (1979) Is reproductive success equal in egalitarian societies? In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W., pp. 374–401. Duxbury.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Albon, S. D. (1979) The roaring red deer and the evolution of honest advertisement. Behaviour 69:145–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Harvey, P. H. (1977) Primate ecology and social organization. Journal of Zoology 183:1–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H., Harvey, P. H. & Rudder, B. (1977) Sexual dimorphism, socioeconomic sex ratio and body weight in primates. Nature 269:797–800.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Parker, G. A. (1995) Sexual coercion in animal societies. Animal Behaviour 49:1345–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Vincent, A. C. J. (1991) Sexual selection and the potential reproductive rates of males and females. Nature 351:58–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conway, M., Irannejad, S. & Giannopoulos, C. (2005) Status-based expectancies for aggression, with regard to gender differences in aggression in social psychological research. Aggressive Behavior 31381–89.Google Scholar
Courtwright, D. T. (1996) Violent land: Single men and social disorder from the frontier to the inner city. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1983) Sex, evolution and behavior, 2nd edition.Willard Grant/Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1988) Homicide. Aldine de Gruyter.Google ScholarPubMed
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1990) Killing the competition: Female/female and male/male homicide. Human Nature 1:81–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (2001) Risk-taking, intrasexual competition, and homicide. In: Evolutionary psychology and motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, vol. 47. ed. French, J. A., Kamil, A. C. & Leger, D. W., pp. 1–36. University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859/1911) On the origin of species by means of natural selection. Murray.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1871/1901) The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. Murray. Available online at:http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/charles_darwin/descent_of_man/chapter_08.html.Google Scholar
Davies, N. B. & Halliday, T. M. (1978) Deep croaks and fighting assessment in toads Bufo bufo. Nature 274:683–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, N. B. & Hartley, I. R. (1996) Food patchiness, territory overlap and social systems: An experiment with dunnocks (Prunella modularis). Journal of Animal Ecology 65:837–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, N. B. & Lundberg, A. (1984) Food distribution and a variable mating system in the dunnock, Prunella modularis. Journal of Animal Ecology 53:895–912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, R. & Carlisle, T. R. (1976) Parental investment, mate desertion and a fallacy. Nature 262:131–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Destro-Bisol, G., Donati, F., Coia, V., Boschi, I., Verginelli, F., Caglia, A., Tofanelli, S., Spedini, G. & Capelli, C. (2004) Variation in female and male lineages in sub-Saharan populations: The importance of sociocultural factors. Molecular Biology and Evolution 21:1673–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dobash, R. E. & Dobash, R. P. (1977–78) Wives: The “appropriate” victims of marital violence. Victimology: An International Journal 2:426–42.Google Scholar
Dobash, R. E. & Dobash, R. P. (1980) Violence against wives: A case against the patriarchy. Open Books.Google Scholar
Dobash, R. P., Dobash, R. E., Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (1992) The myth of sexual symmetry in marital violence. Social Problems 39:71–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H. (1987) Sex differences in social behavior: A social role interpretation. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H. (1997) Sex differences in social behavior: Comparing social role theory and evolutionary psychology. American Psychologist 52(12):1380–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eagly, A. H. & Steffen, V. J. (1984) Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46:735–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H. & Steffen, V. J. (1986) Gender and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin 100(3):309–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eagly, A. H. & Wood, W. (1999) The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social rules. American Psychologist 54:408–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H. & Wood, W. (2006) Three ways that data can misinform: Inappropriate partialling, small samples, and anyway, they're not playing our song. Psychological Inquiry 17:131–37.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., Wood, W. & Diekman, A. B. (2000) Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In: The developmental social psychology of gender, ed. Eckes, T. & Trautner, H. M., pp. 123–74. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., Wood, W. & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2004) Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: Implications for the partner preferences of women and men. In: The psychology of gender, 2nd edition, ed. Eagly, A. H., Beall, A. & Sternberg, R. S., pp. 269–95. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Eaton, W. O. & Enns, L. R. (1986) Sex differences in human motor activity level. Psychological Bulletin 100:19–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Efoghe, G. B. (1989) Are extraverts more conjugally aggressive than introverts? A study of Nigerian couples. Indian Journal of Behaviour 13:1–9.Google Scholar
Eisner, M. (2003) Long-term historical trends in violent crime. Crime and Justice: A Review of Research 30:83–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H. & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006) Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 132 33–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Zanty, F., Hussein, E. M., Shawky, G. A., Way, A. A. & Kishor, S. (1995) Egypt demographic and health survey 1995. Egypt, Cairo: National Population Council.Google Scholar
Emlen, S. T. & Oring, L. W. (1977) Ecology, sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems. Science 197:215–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, S., Neave, N. & Wakelin, D. (2006) Relationship between vocal characteristics and body size and shape in human males: An evolutionary explanation for a deep male voice. Biological Psychiatry 72:160–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evers, C., Fischer, A. H., Rodriguez Mosquera, P. M. & Manstead, A. S. R. (2005) Anger and social appriaisal: A “spicy” sex difference. Emotion 5:258–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Felson, R. B. (1996) Big people hit little people: Sex differences in physical power and interpersonal violence. Criminology 34:433–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felson, R. B. (2002) Violence and gender reexamined. American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feshbach, N. D. (1969) Sex differences in children's modes of aggressive responses toward outsiders. Merrill Palmer Quarterly 15:249–58.Google Scholar
Fiebert, M. S. & Gonzalez, D. M. (1997) College women who initiate assaults on their male partners and the reasons offered for such behavior. Psychological Reports 80:583–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Figueredo, A. J., Corral-Verdugo, V., Frias-Armenta, M., Bachar, K. J., White, J., McNeill, P. L., Kirsner, B. R. & del Pilar Castell-Ruiz, I. (2001) Blood, solidarity, status, and honor: The sexual balance of power and spousal abuse in Sonora, Mexico. Evolution and Human Behavior 22:295–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, C. S. & Beach, F. A. (1951) Patterns of sexual behavior. Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Forsberg, A. J. L. & Tullberg, B. S. (1995) The relationship between cumulative number of cohabiting partners and number of children for men and women in modern Sweden. Ethology and Sociobiology 16:221–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuentes, A. (1999) Re-evaluating primate monogamy. American Anthropology 100:890–907.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., Haselton, M. G. & Buss, D. M. (2006a) Evolutionary foundations of cultural variation: Evoked culture and mate preferences. Psychological Inquiry 17:75–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., Haselton, M. G. & Buss, D. M. (2006b) Toward an integrative understanding of evolved and transmitted culture: The importance of specialized psychological design. Psychological Inquiry 17:138–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. (1998) Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences. American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. (2000) Evolution and proximate expression of human paternal investment. Psychological Bulletin 126:55–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geary, D. C. (2002) Sexual selection and human life history. Advances in Child Development and Behavior 30:41–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geary, D. C., Byrd-Craven, J., Hoard, M. K., Vigil, J. & Numtee, C. (2003) Evolution and development of boys' social behavior. Developmental Review 23:444–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gergen, M. (1990) Beyond the evil empire: Horseplay and aggression. Aggressive Behavior 16:381–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleason, K. A., Jensen-Campbell, L. A. & Richardson, D. S. (2004) Agreeableness as a predictor of aggression in adolescence. Aggressive Behavior 30:43–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, J. P. & Wolfe, L. D. (1980) Height and sexual dimorphism of stature among human societies. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 53:441–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, M. R. (1996) Alternative reproductive strategies and tactics: Diversity within sexes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11:92–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guthrie, R. D. (1970) Evolution of human threat display organs. Evolutionary Biology 4:257–302.Google Scholar
Hall, R. L. (1978) Sexual dimorphism for size in seven nineteenth-century Northwest coast populations. Human Biology 50:159–71.Google ScholarPubMed
Hamel, J. & Nicholls, T. L., eds. (2007) Family interventions in domestic violence: A handbook of gender-inclusive theory and treatment. Springer.Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. & Zuk, M. (1982) Heritable true fitness and bright birds: A role for parasites. Science 218:384–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, C. R., Jenkins, M. & Glaser, D. (2006) Gender differences in risk assessment: Why do women take fewer risks than men? Judgment and Decision Making 1:48–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, M. B. (1992) Sex and ethnic differences in past aggressive behaviors. Journal of Family Violence 7:85–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, D. F., Castle, J. & Davies, L. (2000) Toddlers' use of force against familiar peers: A precursor of serious aggression? Child Development 71:457–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hermans, E. J., Putman, P., Baas, J. M., Koppeschaar, H. P. & van Honk, J. (2006a) A single administration of testosterone reduces fear potentiated startle in humans. Biological Psychiatry 59:872–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hermans, E. J., Putman, P. & van Honk, J. (2006b) Testosterone administration reduces empathic behavior: A facial mimicry study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31:859–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hermans, E. J., Ramsey, N. F. & van Honk, J. (2008) Exogenous testosterone enhances responsiveness to social threat in the neural circuitry of social aggression in humans. Biological Psychiatry 63:263–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hess, N. H. & Hagen, E. H. (2006) Sex differences in indirect aggression: Psychological evidence from young adults. Evolution and Human Behavior 27:231–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hewlett, B. S. (1988) Sexual selection and parental investment among Aka pygmies. In: Human reproductive behavior: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Borgerhoff Mulder, M. & Turke, P., pp. 263–76. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hilton, Z., Harris, G. T. & Rice, M. E. (2000) The functions of aggression by male teenagers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79:988–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, M. (2005) Homicide by men in Japan, and its relationship to age, resources and risk taking. Evolution and Human Behavior 26:332–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hosken, D. & Snook, R. (2005) How important is sexual conflict? American Naturalist 165:S1–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howell, N. (1979) Demography of the Dobe !Kung. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hudson, V. M. & Den Boer, A. (2002) A surplus of men, a deficit of peace: Security and sex ratio in Asia's largest states. International Security 26:5–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, V. M. & Den Boer, A. (2004) Bare branches: Security implications of Asia's surplus male population. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Hyde, J. S. (1984) How large are gender differences in aggression? A developmental meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology 20:722–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyde, J. S. (1986) Gender differences in aggression. In: The psychology of gender: Advances through meta-analysis, ed. Hyde, J. S. & Linn, M. C., pp. 51–66. Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Jenni, D. A. (1974) Evolution of polyandry in birds. American Zoologist 14:129–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, B. T. (1989) Software for the meta-analytic review of research literatures. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Keeley, L. H. (1996) War before civilization: The myth of the peaceful savage. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Keenan, K. & Shaw, D. (1997) Developmental and social influences on young girls' early problem behavior. Psychological Bulletin 121:95–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, K. & Cho, Y. (1992) Epidemiological survey of spousal abuse in Korea. In: Intimate violence: Interdisciplinary perspectives, ed. Viano, E. C., pp. 277–82. Hemisphere.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, L. A. & Epstein, S. (1992) Cognitive-experiential self-theory and subjective probability: Further evidence for two conceptual systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63:534–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knauft, B. M. (1991) Violence and sociality in human evolution. Current Anthropology 32:391–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, G. P., Fabes, R. A. & Higgins, D. A. (1996) Concerns about drawing causal inferences from meta-analyses: An example in the study of gender differences in aggression. Psychological Bulletin 119:410–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, G. P., Guthrie, I. K., Page, M. C. & Fabes, R. A. (2002) Emotional arousal and gender differences in aggression: A meta-analysis. Aggressive Behavior 28:366–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruger, D. J. & Nesse, R. M. (2006) An evolutionary life-history framework for understanding sex differences in human mortality. Human Nature 17:74–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumagai, F. & Straus, M. A. (1983) Conflict resolution tactics in Japan, India, and the USA. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 14:377–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyle, U. G., Genton, L., Lukaski, H. C., Dupertuis, Y. M., Slosman, D. O., Hans, D. & Pichard, C. (2005) Comparison of fat-free mass and body fat in Swiss and American adults. Nutrition 21:161–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Björkqvist, K. & Peltonen, T. (1988) Is indirect aggression typical of females? Gender differences in 11- to 12- year-old children. Aggressive Behavior 4:403–14.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leaper, C. & Friedman, C. K. (2007) The socialization of gender. In: Handbook of socialization: Theory and research, ed. Grusec, J. E. & Hastings, P. D., pp. 561–87. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Levinson, D. (1989) Family violence in cross-cultural perspective. Sage.Google Scholar
Levitt, S. D. (2004) Understanding why crime fell in the 1990s: Four factors that explain the decline and six that do not. Journal of Economic Perspectives 18:163–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lightdale, J. R. & Prentice, D. A. (1994) Rethinking sex differences in aggression: Aggressive behavior in the absence of social roles. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20:34–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindenfors, P., Gittleman, J. L. & Jones, K. E. (2007) Sexual size dimorphism in mammals. In: Sex, size, and gender roles: Evolutionary studies of sexual size dimorphism, ed. Fairbairn, D. J., Blanckenhorn, W. U. & Székely, T., pp. 16–26. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindle, R. S., Metter, E. J., Lynch, N. A., Fleg, J. L., Fozard, J. L., Tobin, J., Roy, T. A. & Hurley, B. F. (1997) Age and gender comparisons of muscle strength in 654 women and men aged 20–93. Journal of Applied Physiology 83:1581–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lippa, R. A. (in press) Sex differences in personality traits and gender-related occupational preferences across 53 nations: Testing evolutionary and social-environmental theories. Archives of Sexual Behavior.Google Scholar
Low, B. S. (1988) Pathogen stress and polygyny in humans. In: Human reproductive behavior, ed Betzig, L., Borgerhoff Mulder, M. & Turke, P., pp. 115–28. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Low, B. S. (1990) Marriage systems and pathogen stress in humans. American Zoologist 30:325–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luk, K. D. K., Lu, W. W., Kwan, W. W., Hu, Y., Wong, Y. W., Law, K. K. P. & Leong, J. A. (2003) Isokinetic and isometric muscle strength of Chinese young males in Taiwan. Ergonomics 40:576–90.Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (1988) Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology 24:755–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (1998) The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. & Jacklin, C. N. (1974) The psychology of sex differences. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Mager, J. N., Walcott, C. & Piper, W. H. (2007) Male common loons, Gavia immer, communicate body mass and condition through dominant frequencies of territorial yodels. Animal Behaviour 73:683–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marlowe, F. (2004) Marital residence among foragers. Current Anthropology 45:277–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. (1982) Evolution and the theory of games. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McElligott, A. G., O'Neill, K. P. & Hayden, T. J. (1999) Cumulative long-term investment in vocalization and mating success of fallow bucks, Dama dama. Animal Behaviour 57:1159–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGrew, W. C. (1972) An ethological study of children's behavior. Academic Press.Google Scholar
McHenry, H. M. & Coffing, K. (2000) Australopithecus to Homo: Transformations in body and mind. Annual Review of Anthropology 29:125–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mirrlees-Black, C., Budd, T., Partridge, S. & Mayhew, P. (1998) The 1998 British Crime Survey. Government Statistical Service (Home Office, London).Google Scholar
Muller, M. N., Kahlenberg, S. M., Thompson, M. E. & Wrangham, R. W. (2007) Male coercion and the costs of promiscuous mating for female chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 274:1009–24.Google ScholarPubMed
Murdock, G. P. (1967) Ethnographic atlas. University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Muscarella, F. & Cunningham, M. R. (1996) The evolutionary significance and social perception of male pattern baldness and facial hair. Ethology and Sociobiology 17:99–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. & Cohen, D. (1996) Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the South. Westview Press.Google Scholar
Parker, G. A. (1974a) Assessment strategy and the evolution of fighting behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology 47:223–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasterski, V., Hindmarsh, P., Geffner, M., Brook, C., Brain, S. & Hines, M. (2007) Increased aggression and activity level in 3- to 11-year-old girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Hormones and Behavior 52:368–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pawlowski, B., Atwal, R. & Dunbar, R. I. M. (2008) Sex differences in everyday risk-taking behavior in humans. Evolutionary Psychology 6:29–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pellegrini, A. D. (2004) Sexual segregation in childhood: A review of evidence for two hypotheses. Animal Behaviour 68:435–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, D. G. & Bussey, K. (1979) The social learning theory of sex differences: Imitation is alive and well. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37:1699–712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, D. G., Perry, L. C. & Weiss, R. J. (1989) Sex differences in the consequences that children anticipate for aggression. Developmental Psychology 25:312–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pheasant, S. T. (1983) Sex differences in strength – some observations on their variability. Applied Ergonomics 14:205–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plavcan, J. M. (2000) Inferring social behavior from sexual dimorphism in the fossil record. Journal of Human Evolution 39:327–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plavcan, J. M. & van Schaik, C. P.. (1997a) Interpreting hominid behavior on the basis of sexual dimorphism. Journal of Human Evolution 32:345–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plavcan, J. M. & van Schaik, C. P. (1997b) Intrasexual competition and body weight dimorphism in anthropoid primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 103:37–68.3.0.CO;2-A>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pomiankowski, A. & Møller, A. P. (1995) A reolution to the lek paradox. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 160:21–29.Google Scholar
Putman, P., Hermans, E. J. & van Honk, J. (2004) Emotional Stroop performance for masked angry faces: It's BAS, not BIS. Emotion 4:305–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puts, D. A., Gaulin, S. J. C. & Verdolini, K. (2006) Dominance and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in human voice pitch. Evolution and Human Behavior 27:283–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puts, D. A., Hodges, C. R., Cárdenas, R. A. & Gaulin, S. J. C. (2007) Men's voices as dominance signals: Vocal fundamental and formant frequencies influence dominance attributions among men. Evolution and Human Behavior 28:340–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quetelet, A. (1833/1984) Recherches sur le penchant au crime aux différens âges. Hayez, M.. (English edition, 1984: Research on the propensity for crime at different ages, trans. S. F. Sylvester. Anderson).Google Scholar
Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Farrington, D. P. (1997) Biosocial bases of violence: Conceptual and theoretical issues. In: Biosocial bases of violence, ed. Raine, A., Brennan, P., Farrington, D. P. & Mednick, A. A., pp. 1–20. Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ralls, K. (1976) Mammals in which females are larger than the males. Quarterly Review of Biology 51:245–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, D. R. & Green, L. R. (1999) Social sanction and threat explanations of gender effects on direct and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior 25:425–34.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, D. (1984) Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Sage.Google Scholar
Rutter, A. & Hine, D. W. (2005) Sex differences in workplace aggression: An investigation of moderation and mediation effects. Aggressive Behavior 31:254–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salzano, F. M., Neel, J. V. & Maybury-Lewis, D. (1967) Further studies of the Xavante Indians. I. Demographic data on two additional villages: Genetic structure of the tribe. American Journal of Human Genetics 19:463–89.Google Scholar
Schuster, I. (1983) Women's aggression: An African case study. Aggressive Behavior 9:319–31.3.0.CO;2-E>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuster, I. (1985) Female aggression and resource scarcity: A cross-cultural perspective. In: The aggressive female, ed. Haug, M., Benton, D., Brain, P. F., Olivier, B. & Mos, J., pp. 185–207. Eden.Google Scholar
Sears, R. R., Rau, L. & Alpert, R. (1965) Identification and child rearing. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Selander, R. K. (1972) Sexual selection and dimorphism in birds. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man, ed. Campbell, B., pp. 180–230. Aldine.Google Scholar
Sell, A. (2005) Regulating welfare tradeoff ratios: Three tests of an evolutionary-computational model of human anger. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
Sell, A. (2006) Anger face dissected: Why do their faces look like that? Paper presented at the Meeting of the International Society for Research on Aggression World Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota, July 2006.Google Scholar
Sell, A., Cosmides, L., Tooby, J., Sznycer, D., von Rueden, C. & Gurven, M. (2009) Human adaptations for the visual assessment of strength and fighting ability from the body and face. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 276:575–84.Google ScholarPubMed
Sell, A., Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (2005) Physical strength predicts entitlement, anger, and attitudes about aggression in men. Paper presented at the Human Behavior and Evolution Society Conference, Austin, Texas, June 2005.Google Scholar
Shackelford, T. K. & Buss, D. M. (1997) Marital satisfaction in evolutionary psychological perspective. In: Satisfaction in close relationships, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Hojjat, M., pp. 7–25. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Sharpe, J. P. & Desai, S. (2001) The revised neo personality inventory and the MMPI-2 psychopathology five in the prediction of aggression. Personality and Individual Differences 31:505–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shettles, L. B. (1961) Conception and birth sex ratios. Obstetrics and Gynecology 18:122–30.Google Scholar
Smuts, B. B. (1987a) Gender, aggression, and influence. In: Primate societies, ed. Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W. & Struhsaker, T. T., pp. 400–12. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Smuts, B. B. (1987b) Sexual competition and mate choice. In: Primate societies, ed. Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W. & Struhsaker, T. T., pp. 385–99. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Smuts, B. B. (1992) Male aggression against women: An evolutionary perspective. Human Nature 3:1–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smuts, B. B. (1995) The evolutionary origins of patriarchy. Human Nature 6:1–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Straus, M. A. (1979) Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. Journal of Marriage and the Family 41:75–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. A. (1999) The controversy over domestic violence by women: A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. In: Violence in intimate relationships, ed. Arriaga, X.B. & Oskamp, S., pp. 17–44. Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. A. & Gelles, R. J. (1988) How violent are American families? Estimates from the National Family Violence Resurvey and other studies. In: Family abuse and its consequences: New directions in research, ed. Hotaling, G. T., Finkelhor, D., Kirkpatrick, J. T. & Straus, M. A., pp. 14–36. Sage.Google Scholar
Tanner, J. M. (1970) Physical growth. In: Carmichael's manual of child psychology, vol. 1, ed. Mussen, P. H., pp. 77–155. Wiley.Google Scholar
Tanner, J. M. (1989) Foetus into man: Physical growth from conception to maturity, 2nd edition.Castlemead.Google Scholar
Tedeschi, J. T. & Felson, R. B. (1994) Violence, aggression, and coercive actions. American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thanzami, V. L. & Archer, J. (2005) Beliefs about aggression in British students from individualistic and collectivist cultures. Aggressive Behavior 31:350–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tieger, T. (1980) On the biological basis of sex differences. Child Development 51:943–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tremblay, R. E., Japel, C., Pérusse, D., McDuff, P., Boivin, M., Zoccolillo, M. & Montplaisir, J. (1999) The search for the age of “onset” of physical aggression: Rousseau and Bandura revisted. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health 9(1):8–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Schaal, B., Boulerice, B., Arseneault, L., Soussignan, R. G., Paquette, D. & Laurent, D. (1998) Testosterone, physical aggression, dominance, and physical development in early adolescence. International Journal of Behavioral Development 22:753–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man, ed. Campbell, B. B., pp. 136–79. Aldine.Google Scholar
Twenge, J. M. (1997a) Attitudes toward women, 1970–1995. Psychology of Women Quarterly 21:35–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Twenge, J. M. (1997b) Changes in masculine and feminine traits over time: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles 36:305–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Twenge, J. M. (2001) Changes in women's assertiveness in response to status and roles: A cross-temporal meta-analysis, 1931–1993. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81:133–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report (1997) Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report (2005) Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/Google Scholar
van Honk, J., Tuiten, A., Hermans, E. J., Putman, P., Koppeschaar, H. P., Thijssen, J., Verbaten, R. & van Doornen, L. (2001) A single administration of testosterone induces cardiac acceleration response to angry faces in healthy young women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29:937–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Vugt, M., De Cremer, D. & Janssen, D. (2007) Gender differences in cooperation and competition: The male warrior hypothesis. Psychological Science 18:19–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waddington, C. H. (1957) The strategy of genes. Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Walker, L. E. (1989) Psychology and violence against women. American Psychologist 44:659–702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weston, E. M., Friday, A. E., Johnstone, R. A. & Schrenk, F. (2004) Wide faces or large canines? The attractive versus the aggressive primate? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B (Suppl.) 271(S):416–19.Google ScholarPubMed
Weston, E. M., Friday, A. E. & Lio, P. (2007) Biometric evidence that sexual selection has shaped the hominid face. PLoS ONE 2 (8):e710. Available online: doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000710).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (1992) The man who mistook his wife for a chattel. In: The adapted mind, ed. Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J., pp. 289–321. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (2006) Are juvenile offenders extreme discounters? Psychological Science 17:989–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, M. L. & Wrangham, R. W. (2003) Intergroup relations in chimpanzees. Annual Review of Anthropology 32:263–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, L. D. & Gray, J. P. (1982) Latitude and intersocietal variation of human sexual dimorphism of stature. Human Ecology 10:409–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, W. & Eagly, A. H. (2002) A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin 128:699–727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wrangham, R. W., Wilson, M. L. & Muller, M. N. (2006) Comparative rates of violence in chimpanzees and humans. Primates 47:14–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xiao, G., Lei, L., Dempsey, P. G., Lu, B. & Liang, Y. (2005) Isometric muscle strength and anthropometric characteristics of a Chinese sample. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 35:674–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zuckerman, M. (1994) Behavioural expressions and biosocial bases of sensation seeking. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, M. & Kuhlman, D. M. (2000) Personality and risk-taking: Common biosocial factors. Journal of Personality 68:999–1029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Joireman, J., Teta, P. & Kraft, M. (1993) A comparison of three structural models for personality: The big three, the big five, and the alternative five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65:757–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar