Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T20:25:23.461Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Choice between long- and short-term interests: Beyond self-control

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Leonard Green  and
Joel Myerson
Leonard Green
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO [email protected]
Joel Myerson
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the real world, there are choices between large, delayed, punctate rewards and small, more immediate rewards as well as choices between patterns and acts. A common element in these situations is the choice between long- and short-term interests. Key issues for future research appear to be how acts are restructured into larger patterns of behavior, and whether, as Rachlin implies, pattern perception is the cause of pattern generation.

Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 18 , Issue 1: An International Journal of Current Research and Theory with Open Peer Commentary , March 1995 , pp. 127 - 128
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackrill, J. L. (1980) Aristotle on eudaimonia. In: Essays on Aristotle's ethics, ed. Rorty, A. O.. University of California Press. [AS]Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. (1974) Impulse control in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:485–89. [aHR, RE]Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. (1975) Specious reward: A behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control. Psychological Bulletin 82:463–96. [RE, AWL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. (1992) Picoeconomics. Cambridge University Press. [arHR, PRK]Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. & Herrnstein, R. J. (1981) Preference reversal and delayed reinforcement. Animal Learning and Behavior 9:476–82. [aHR]Google Scholar
Baer, D. M., Peterson, R. F. & Sherman, J. A. (1967) The development of imitation by reinforcing behavioral similarity to a model. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:345–56. [ES]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, W. M. (1973) The correlation-based law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 20:137–53. [PNH]Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F. & Tice, D. M. (1994a) Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation. Academic Press. [RFB]Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Reis, H. T. & Delespaul, P. (in press, a) Subjective and experiential correlates of guilt in daily life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. [RFB]Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M. & Heatherton, T. F. (1994b) Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin 115:243–67. [rHR, RFB]Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M. & Heatherton, T. F. (in press, b) Personal narratives about guilt: Role in action control and interpersonal relationships. Basic and Applied Social Psychology. [RFB]Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F. & Tice, D. M. (1990) Anxiety and social exclusion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 9:165–95. [RFB]Google Scholar
Baxter, L. R. (1991) PET studies of cerebral function in major depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder: The emerging prefrontal cortex consensus. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 3:103–9. [GO]Google Scholar
Beaver, W. (1990) The nuclear power industry and the radioactive waste dilemma—What went wrong. Journal of Social, Political & Economic Studies 15(3):357–73. [CS]Google Scholar
Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., Damasio, H. & Anderson, S. W. (1994) Inscnsitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 50:7–15. [JH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berry, D. C. & Dienes, Z. (1993) Implicit learning: Theoretical and empirical issues. Erlbaum. [IGO]Google Scholar
Boyer, D. L. (1984) A widely accepted but nonetheless astonishingly flimsy argument against analytical behaviorism. Philosophia 14:153–71. [FT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownell, K. D., Greenwood, M. R. C., Stellar, E. & Shrager, E. E. (1986) The effects of repeated cycles of weight loss and regain in rats. Physiology and Behavior 38:459–64. [aHR]Google Scholar
Brunswik, E. (1952) The conceptual framework of psychology. University of Chicago Press. [rHR, TLS]Google Scholar
Buruma, I. (1994) The wages of guilt: Memories of war in Germany and Japan. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. [rHR]Google Scholar
Caraco, T. (1988) On the careful use of ecological models. Behavioral and Brain Sciences ll(4):680–81. [CS]Google Scholar
Castro, L. & Rachlin, H. (1980) Self-reward, self-monitoring, and self-punishment as feedback in weight control. Behavior Therapy 11:38–48. [rHR]Google Scholar
Catania, A. C. (1973) The concept of the operant in the analysis of behavior. Behaviorism 1:103–16. [MNB]Google Scholar
Catania, A. C. (1975) The myth of self-reinforcement. Behaviorism 3:192–99. [aHR]Google Scholar
Churchland, P. S. (1988) Reduction and the neurobiological basis of consciousness. In: Consciousness in contemporary Science, ed. Marcel, A. J. & Bisiach, E.. Oxford University Press. [JH]Google Scholar
Churchland, P. S. (1993) Can neurobiology teach us anything about consciousness? Presidential Address to the 67th Annual Pacific Division Meeting of The American Philosophical Association. San Francisco, 03 26. [JH]Google Scholar
Cody, R. & Lee, C. (1990) Behaviors, beliefs, and intentions in skin cancer prevention. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 13:373–89. [CO]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Couto, R. A. (1989) Economics, experts and risk: Lessons from the catastophe at Aberfan. Political Psychology 10(2):309–24. [CS]Google Scholar
Cox, K. (1992) New Atlantic fish quotas to cost 2,000 more jobs. The Clobe & Mail, 12 19:B1, B12. [CS]Google Scholar
Cox, K. (1994) Tobin won't face same outcry as Crosbie over fishery news. The Clobe & Mail, 04 19:A4. [CS]Google Scholar
Damasio, A. R. (1994) Descartes' error: Emotion, rationality and the human brain. Putnam (Grosset Books). [JH]Google Scholar
Damasio, A. R., Tranel, D. & Damasio, H. (1990) Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social stimuli. Behavioural Brain Research 41:81–94. [JH]Google Scholar
Damasio, A. R., Tranel, D. & Damasio, H. (1991) Somatic markers and the guidance of behavior. In: Frontal lobe function and dysfunction, ed. Levin, H., Eisenberg, H. & Benton, A.. Oxford University Press. [JH]Google Scholar
Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. (1990) The neural basis of memory, language and behavioral guidance: Advances with the lesion method in humans. Seminars in the Neurosciences 2:277–86. [JH]Google Scholar
Davidson, D. (1980) Essays on actions and events. Clarendon Press. [JM]Google Scholar
Dawes, R. (1973) The commons dilemma game: An N-person mixed-motive game with a dominating strategy for defection. ORI Research Bulletin 13:1–12. Also in McAndrew F. T. (1993) Environmental psychology. Brooks/Cole. [CS]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. (1978) Brainstorms: Philosophical essays on mind and psychology. MIT Press. [aHR]Google Scholar
Dewey, J. (1896) The reflex arc concept in psychology. Psychological Review 3:357–70. [aHR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberger, R. (1989) Blue Monday: The loss of the work ethic in America. Paragon House. [RE]Google Scholar
Eisenberger, R. (1992) Learned industriousness. Psychological Review 99:248–67. [RE]Google Scholar
Eisenberger, R. & Adornetto, M. (1986) Generalized self-control of delay and effort. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51:1020–31. [RE]Google Scholar
Eisenberger, R., Carlson, J. & Frank, M. (1979) Transfer of effort across behavior. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 31:679–700. [aHR]Google Scholar
Eisenborger, R., Mastcrson, F. A. & Lowman, K. (1982) Effects of previous delay of reward, generalized effort, and deprivation on impulsiveness. Learning and Motivation 13:378–89. [RE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberger, R., Mitchell, M. & Masterson, F. A. (1985) Effort training increases generalized self control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49:1294–1301. [aHR, AWL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberger, R., Weier, F., Masterson, F. A. & Theis, L. Y. (1989) Fixed ratio schedules increase generalized self-control: Preference for large rewards despite high effort or punishment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 15:383–92. [RE]Google Scholar
Elster, J. (1979) Ulysses and the Sirens. Cambridge University Press. [JM]Google Scholar
Eslinger, P. J. & Damasio, A. R. (1985) Severe disturbance of higher cognition after bilateral frontal lobe ablation: Patient EVR. Neurology 35:1731–41. [JH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fantino, E. (1966) Immediate reward followed by extinction vs. later reward without extinction. Psychonomic Science 6:233–34. [EF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1968) Effects of required rates of responding on choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11:15–22. [EF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1988) Conditioned reinforcement and reproductive success. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:135. [EF]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. (1991) Behavioral ecology. In: Techniques in the behavioral and neural sciences, vol. 6: Experimental analysis of behavior, part 2, ed. Iverson, I. H. & Lattal, K. A.. Elsevier. [EF]Google Scholar
Ferster, C. S. & Skinner, B. F. (1957) Schedules of reinforcement. Prentice-Hall. [TLS]Google Scholar
Frank, R. H. (1988) Passions within reason: The strategic role of emotions. W. W. Norton. [rHR]Google Scholar
Frank, R. H. (1992) The role of moral sentiments in the theory of intertemporal choice. In: Choice over time, ed. Loewenstein, G. F. & Elster, J.. Russell Sage Foundation. [aHR]Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. (1970) Chimpanzees: Self-recognition. Science 167:86–87. [DP]Google Scholar
Green, L. & Fisher, E. B. Jr, (1988) Self-control in context. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:684–85. [CS]Google Scholar
Green, L., Fisher, E. B. Jr, Perlow, S. & Sherman, L. (1981) Preference reversal and self control: Choice as a function of reward amount and delay. Behavioral Analysis Letters 1:43–51. [aHR]Google Scholar
Green, L., Fry, A. F. & Myerson, J. (1994) Discounting of delayed rewards: A life-span comparison. Psychological Science 5:33–36. [LG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guthrie, E. R. (1935) The psychology of learning. Harper. [aHR]Google Scholar
Hackenberg, T. D. & Axtell, S. A. M. (1993) Humans' choices in situations of time-based diminishing returns. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 59:445–70. [rHR, EF]Google Scholar
Hardin, G. (1968) The tragedy of the commons. Science 162:1243–48. [CS]Google Scholar
Hausman, J. (1979) Individual discount rates and the purchase and utilization of energy-using durables. Bell Journal of Economics 10:33–54. [CS]Google Scholar
Hayes, S. C., ed. (1989) Rule-governed behavior. Plenum Press. [MNB]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1961) Relative and absolute strength of response as a function of frequency of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 4:267–72. [aHR, CS]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1969) Method and theory in the study of avoidance. Psychological Review 76:49–69. [aHR, SK, JAS]Google Scholar
Hermstein, R. J., Loewenstein, G. F., Prelec, D. & Vaughan, W. Jr (1993) Behavioral Decision Making 6:149–85. [aHR]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Prelec, D. (1992) Melioration. In: Choice over time, ed. Loewenstein, G. F. & Elster, J.. Russell Sage Foundation. [aHR, RE]Google Scholar
Hinde, R. A. (1970) Animal behaviour: A synthesis of ethology and comparative psychology. McGraw-Hill. [aHR]Google Scholar
Hineline, P. N. (1976) Negative reinforcement and avoidance. In: Handbook of operant behavior, ed. Honig, W. K. & Staddon, J. E. R.. Prentice-Hall. [PNH]Google Scholar
Hineline, P. N. (1981) The several roles of stimuli in negative reinforcement. In: Advances in analysis of behavior, vol. 2: Predictability, correlation, and contiguity, ed. Harzem, P. & Zeiler, M. D.. Wiley. [PNH]Google Scholar
Hineline, P. N. (1984) Aversive control: A separate domain? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 42:495–509. [PNH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holt, E. B. (1915) The Freudian wish and its place in ethics. Henry Holt. [FT]Google Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1943) Principles of behavior. Appleton-Century. [aHR]Google Scholar
Hull, J. G. (1981) A self-awareness model of the causes and effects of alcohol consumption. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 90:586–600. [RFB]Google Scholar
James, W. (1890) Principles of psychology. Dover. [PRK]Google Scholar
Kantor, J. R. (1963) The scientific evolution of psychology, vol. 2. Principia Press. [aHR]Google Scholar
Kavanau, J. (1967) Behavior of captive white-footed mice. Science 155:1623–39. [BNW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lacey, H. M. & Rachlin, H. (1978) Behavior, cognition, and theories of chojee. Behaviorism 6:177–202. [aHR, PNH]Google Scholar
Lacey, H. M. & Schwartz, B. (in press) The formation and transformation of values. In: Psychology and philosophy: Interdisciplinary problems and responses, ed. Kitchener, R. & O'Donohue, W.. Allyn & Bacon. [HL]Google Scholar
Land, E. H. (1964) The retinex. American Scientist 52:247–64. [aHR, PRK]Google Scholar
Lashley, K. S. (1951) The problem of serial order in behavior. In: Cerebral mechanisms in behavior, ed. Jeffress, L. A.. Wiley. [ES]Google Scholar
Lee, C. (1989) Perceptions of immunity to disease in adult smokers. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 12:267–77. [GO]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1988a) Research on self control: An integrating framework. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:665–79. [aHR, AWL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1988b) Working toward the big reinforcer: Integration. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:697–704. [CS]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1995) Self-control: Waiting until tomorrow for what you want today. Prentice Hall. [AWL]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W., & Mazur, J. E. (1981) Maintenance of self-control acquired through a fading procedure: Follow-up on Mazur and Logue (1978). Behavioral Analysis Letters 1:131–37. [RE]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W., Rodriguez, M. L., Pena-Correal, T. E. & Mauro, B. C. (1984) Choice in a self-control paradigm: Quantification of experienced-based differences. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 41:53–67. [RE]Google Scholar
Macdonald, A. M., Murray, R. M. & Clifford, C. A. (1992) The contribution of heredity to obsessional disorder and personality: A review of family and twin study evidence. In: Genetic issues in psychosocial epidemiology, ed. Tsuang, M. T., Kendler, K. S. & Lyons, M. J.. Rutgers University Press. [CO]Google Scholar
Mahoney, M. J. (1974) Self-reward and self-monitoring techniques for weight control. Behavior Therapy 5:48–57. [arHR]Google Scholar
Malone, J. C. Jr, (1978) Beyond the OPERANT analysis of behavior. Behavior Therapy 9:584–91. [FT]Google Scholar
Mann, C. C. & Plummer, M. L. (1992) The butterfly problem. Atlantic Monthly, 01: 47–59. [CS]Google Scholar
Mannix, E. A. (1991) Resource dilemmas and discount rates in decision making groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 27:379–91. [CS]Google Scholar
Marr, M. J. (1984) Conceptual approaches and issues. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 42:353–62. [TLS]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1984) Tests of an equivalence rule for fixed and variable reinforcer delays. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 10:426–36. [FT]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1987) An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 5: The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value, ed. Commons, M. L., Mazur, J. E., Nevin, J. A. & Rachlin, H.. Erlbaum. [aHR, FT]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1994) Effects of intertrial reinforcers on self-control choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 61:83–96. [JJP]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. & Logue, A. W. (1978) Choice in a “self-control” paradigm: Effects of a fading procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 30:11–17. [aHR, RE]Google Scholar
McDowell, J. J., Bass, R. & Kessel, R. (1992) Applying linear systems analysis to dynamic behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 57:377–91. [FT]Google Scholar
McGough, J. J., Speier, P. L. & Cantwell, D. P. (1993) Obsessive-compulsive disorder in childhood and adolescence. School Psychology Review 22:243–51. [GO]Google Scholar
McKeon, R., ed. (1941) The basic works of Aristotle. Random House. [JL]Google Scholar
McKeon, R., ed. (1941) The basic works of Aristotle. Random House. [JL]Google Scholar
Mele, A. (1995) Autonomous agents. In: From self-control to autonomy. Oxford University Press. [AM]Google Scholar
Michaels, C. F. & Carello, C. (1981) Direct perception. Prentice-Hall. [PNH]Google Scholar
Millar, A. & Navarick, D. J. (1984). Self control and choice in humans. Effects of video game playing as a positive reinforcer. Learning and Motivation 15:203–18. [aHR]Google Scholar
Mischel, W. & Baker, N. (1975) Cognitive appraisals and transformations in delay behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31:254–61. [rHR, KL]Google Scholar
Mischel, W. & Moore, B. (1973) Effects of attention to symbolically presented rewards on self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 28:172–79. [KL]Google Scholar
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y. & Rodriguez, M. (1989) Delay of gratification in children. Science 244:933–38. [arHR, KL, AS]Google Scholar
Moore, B., Mischel, W. & Zeiss, A. (1976) Comparative effects of the reward stimulus and its cognitive representation in voluntary delay. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34:419–24. [KL]Google Scholar
Moore, M. (1993) New imperatives. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 49 (2):2. [CS]Google Scholar
Morris, E. K., Higgins, S. T. & Bickel, W. K. (1982) Comments on cognitive science in the experimental analysis of behavior. Behavior Analyst (5:109–25. [PNH]Google Scholar
Mowrer, O. H. (1960) Learning theory and behavior. John Wiley. [aHR]Google Scholar
Navarick, D. J. & Fantino, E. (1976) Self control and general models of choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 2:75–87. [aHR]Google Scholar
Naylor, J. C. & Briggs, G. E. (1963) Effects of task complexity and task organization on the relative efficiency of part and whole training methods. Journal of Experimental Psychology 65:217–24. [ ES]Google Scholar
Nevin, J. A. & Liebold, K. (1966) Stimulus control of matching and oddity in a pigeon. Psychonomic Science 5:351–52. [rHR]Google Scholar
Nevin, J. A., Mandell, C. & Atak, J. R. (1983) The analysis of behavioral momentum. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:49–60. [aHR, EF, JJP]Google Scholar
Overskeid, G. (1991) Driver education and training. In: Proceedings of the Third European Workshop on Recent Developments in Road Safety Research, 04 26–27, 1990, ed. Rumar, K.. Swedish Road and Traffic Research Institute. [GO]Google Scholar
Overskeid, G. (1994) Private events and other causes of behavior: Who can tell the difference? The Psychological Record 44:35–43. [GO]Google Scholar
Piacentini, J., Jaffer, M., Gitow, A., Graae, F., Davies, S. O., Delbene, D. & Liebowitz, M. (1992) Psychopharinacological treatment of child and adolescent obsessive compulsive disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 15:87–107. [GO]Google Scholar
Platt, J. (1973) Social traps. American Psychologist 28:641–51. [CS]Google Scholar
Plaud, J. J. & Dubbert, P. M. (1993) Exercise: A healthy choice. The Weight Control Digest 3:274–76. [JJP]Google Scholar
Prelec, D. (1989) Decreasing impatience: Definition and consequences. Manuscript. Russell Sage Foundation. [aHR]Google Scholar
Premack, D. (1971a) Catching up with common sense, or two sides of a generalization: Reinforcement and punishment. In: The nature of reinforcement, ed. Glaser, R.. Acádemic press. [arHR]Google Scholar
Premack, D. (1971b) Mechanisms of self-control. In: Learning mechanisms in smoking, ed. Hunt, W.. Aldine Press. [DP]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1974) Self control. Behaviorism 2:94–107. [aHR, RE, AWL]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1976) Behavior and learning. Freeman. [aHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1980) Economics and behavioral psychology. In: Limits to action: The allocation of individual behavior, ed. Staddon, J. E. R.. Academic Press. [rHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1985) Pain and behavior. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:43–83. [aHR, PRK, FT]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1988) Molar behaviorism. In: Paradigms in behavior therapy: Present and promise, ed. Fishman, D. B., Rotgers, F. & Franks, C. M.. Springer. [FT]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1990) Why do people gamble and keep gambling despite heavy losses? Psychological Science 1:294–97. [aHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1992) Teleological behaviorism. American Psychologist 47:1371–82. [aHR, AWL, BNW]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1993) The context of pigeon and human choice. Behavior and Philosophy 21:1–18. [aHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1994a) Behavior and mind: The roots of modern psychology. Oxford University Press. [aHR, HL, AS, FT]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1994b) Free will. In: Encyclopedia of human behavior, vol. 2. Academic Press. [rHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1994c) From overt behavior to hypothetical behavior to memory: Inference in the wrong direction. Comments on Killeen. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:147–48. [aHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H., Battalio, R., Kagel, J. & Green, L. (1981) Maximization theory in behavioral psychology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:371–88. [aHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. & Green, L. (1972) Commitment, choice and self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17:15–22. [aHR, RE, JJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H. & Herrnstein, R. J. (1969) Hedonism revisited: On the negative law of effect. In: Punishment and aversive behavior, ed. Campbell, B. & Church, R. M.. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [rHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. & Mansfield, R. (1970) The effect of punishment, extinction and satiation on response chains. Learning and Motivation 1:27–35. [rHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. & Raineri, A. (1992) Irrationality, impulsiveness and selfishness as discount reversal effects. In: Choice over time, ed. Loewenstein, G. F. & Elster, J.. Russell Sage Foundation. [aHR]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H., Raineri, A. & Cross, D. (1991) Subjective probability and delay. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 55:233–44. [aHR]Google Scholar
Rapoport, J. L. (1990) Obsessive compulsive disorder and basal ganglia dysfunction. Psychological Medicine 20:465–69. [GO]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. & Solomon, R. L. (1967) Two-process learning theory: Relationships between Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental learning. Psychological Review 74:151–82. [aHR]Google Scholar
Reuters News Agency (1992) “God squad” frees up timber. The Clobe & Mail, 05 15:B17. [CS]Google Scholar
Roback, A. A. (1923) Behaviorism and psychology. University Bookstore. [AWL]Google Scholar
Robinson, W. S. (1985) Intentionality, ascription, and understanding: Remarks on professor Hocutt's “Spartans, strawmen, and symptoms.” Behaviorism 13:157–61. [FT]Google Scholar
Rozin, P. & Kalat, J. W. (1971) Specific hungers and poison avoidance as adaptive specializations of learning. Psychological Review 78:459–86. [aHR]Google Scholar
Ryle, G. (1949) The concept of mind. Hutchenson House. [arHR]Google Scholar
Schelling, T. C. (1992) Self-command: A new discipline. In: Choice over time, ed. Loewenstein, G. F. & Elster, J.. Russell Sage Foundation. [aHR]Google Scholar
Schoemaker, P. J. H. (1991) The quest for optimality: A positive heuristic of science? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14:205–45. [FT]Google Scholar
Shafir, E., Simonson, I. & Tversky, A. (1993) Reason-based choice. Cognition 49:11–36. [DP]Google Scholar
Shefrin, H. M. & Thaler, R. H. (1992) Mental accounting, saving, and self control. In: Choice over time, ed. Loewenstein, G. F. & Elster, j.. Russell Sage Foundation. [aHR]Google Scholar
Shnader-Frcchette, K. (1991) Ethical dilemmas and radioactive waste: A survey of the issues. Environmental Ethics 13(4):327–44. [CS]Google Scholar
Shull, R. L. & Spear, D. J. (1987) Detention time after reinforcement: Effects due to delay of reinforcement? In: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 5: The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value, ed. Commons, M. L., Mazur, J. E., Nevin, J. A. & Rachlin, H.. Erlbaum. [FT]Google Scholar
Silberberg, A., Bauman, R. & Hursh, S. R. (1993) Stock optimizing: Maximizing reinforcers per session on a variable-interval schedule. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 59:389–400. [rHR]Google Scholar
Silverstein, A. (1988) An Aristotelian resolution of the ideographic versus nomothetic tension. American Psychologist 43:425–30. [AS]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1935) The generic nature of the concepts of stimulus and response. Journal of General Psychology 12:40–65. [MNB]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1938) The behavior of organisms. Appleton-Century. [aHR]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1945) The operational analysis of psychological terms. Psychological Review 52:270–77. [MNB]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1953a) Science and human behavior. Macmillan. [aHR, MNB, JJP]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1953b) Some contributions of an experimental analysis of behavior to psychology as a whole. American Psychologist 8:69–78. [TLS]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1966) The phylogeny and ontogeny of behavior. Science 153:1205–13. [AWL]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1974) About behaviorism. Knopf. [MNB]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1981) Selection by consequences. Science 213:501–4. [AWL]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1988) Comment. In: The selection of behavior: The operant behaviorism of B. F. Skinner: Comments and consequences, ed. Catania, A. C & Hamad, S.. Cambridge University Press. [JJP]Google Scholar
Smedslund, J. (1988) Psycho-logic. Springer. [GO]Google Scholar
Smith, T. L. (1994) Behavior and its causes: Philosophical foundations of operant psychology. Kluwer Academic. [TLS]Google Scholar
Solnick, J. W., Kannenberg, C., Eekerman, D. A. & Waller, M. B. (1980) An experimental analysis of impulsivity and impulse control in humans. Learning and Motivation 1:61–77. [aHR]Google Scholar
Solomon, R. L., Turner, L. H. & Lessac, M. S. (1968) Some effects of delay of punishment on resistance to temptation in dogs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8:233–38. [SK]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1973) On the notion of cause with application to behaviorism. Behaviorism 2:25–63. [rHR, TLS]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. & Simmelhaag, V. L. (1971) The “superstition” experiment: A reexamination of its implications for the principles of adaptive behavior. Psychological Review 78:3–43. [aHR]Google Scholar
Steele, C. M. & Josephs, R. A. (1990) Alcohol myopia: Its prized and dangerous effects. American Psychologist 45:921–33. [RFB]Google Scholar
Strotz, R. H. (1956) Myopia and inconsistency in dynamic utility maximization. Review of Economic Studies 23:165–80. [aHR]Google Scholar
Summers, C. (1990) State-sponsored destruction in 1945 and 1990: Effects of conflicting personal responsibilities. Current Research on Peace and Violence 13(2):91–96. [CS]Google Scholar
Summers, C. (1993) Natural resource management decisions: An interactive, animated simulation model. In: Proceedings of the 1993 Summer Computer Simulation Conference. The Society for Computer Simulation. [CS]Google Scholar
Summers, C. & Markusen, E. (1992) Computers, ethics and collective violence. Journal of Systems and Software: Special Issue on Computer Ethics 17:91–103. [CS]Google Scholar
Svenson, O. (1981) Are we all less risky and more skillful than our fellow drivers? Ada Psychologica 47:143–48. [GO]Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P. (1992) Situational determinants of shame and guilt in young adulthood. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18:199–206. [RFB]Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1911) Animal.intelligcnce. Macmillan. [aHR]Google Scholar
Vangelisti, A. L., Daly, J. A. & Rudnick, J. R. (1991) Making people feel guilty in conversations: Techniques and correlates. Human Communication Research 18:3–39. [RFB]Google Scholar
Wanchisen, B. A., Tatham, T. A. & Hineline, P. N. (1988) Pigeons'c hoices in situations of diminishing returns: Fixed- versus progressive-ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 50:375–94. [EF]Google Scholar
Wanchisen, B. A., Tatham, T. A. & Hineline, P. N. (1992) Human choice in “counterintuitive” situations: Fixed versus progressive-ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 58:67–85. [EF]Google Scholar
Watson, J. B. (1913) Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review 20:158–77. [AWL]Google Scholar
Williams, W. A. & Fantino, E. (1994) Delay-reduction and optimal foraging: Variable-ratio search in a foraging analogue. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 61:465–78. [EF]Google Scholar
Wilson, D. (1993) Clayquot protesters jailed 45 days for violating court order. The Clobe & Mail, 10 15:A1, A4. [CS]Google Scholar
Wittgenstein, L. (1958) Philosophical investigations. Translated by Anscombe, G. E. M.. Macmillan. [arHR]Google Scholar
Woodruff, G. & Premack, D. (1979) Intentional communication in chimpanzees: The development of deception. Cognition 7:333–62. [DP]Google Scholar
Yates, B. T. & Mischel, W. (1979) Young children's preferred attuntional strategies for delaying gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37:286–300. [KL]Google Scholar
Zuriff, G. E. (1979) Ten inner causes. Behaviorism 7:1–8. [aHR]Google Scholar