Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-gmt7q Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-13T03:26:44.436Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Brains evolution and neurolinguistic preconditions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Wendy K. Wilkins  and
Jennie Wakefield
Wendy K. Wilkins
Affiliation:
Department of English, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-0302Electronic mail: [email protected]
Jennie Wakefield
Affiliation:
Department of Speech and Hearing Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-1908Electronic mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This target article presents a plausible evolutionary scenario for the emergence of the neural preconditions for language in the hominid lineage. In pleistocene primate lineages there was a paired evolutionary expansion of frontal and parietal neocortex (through certain well-documented adaptive changes associated with manipulative behaviors) resulting, in ancestral hominids, in an incipient Broca's region and in a configurationally unique junction of the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes of the brain (the POT). On our view, the development of the POT in our ancestors resulted in the neuroanatomical substrate consistent with the ability for representations in modality-neutral association cortex and, as a result of structure-imposing interaction with Broca's area, the hierarchically structured “conceptual structure.” Evidence from paleoneurology and comparative primate neuroanatomy is used to argue that Homo habilis (2.5–2 million years ago) was the first hominid to have the appropriate gross neuroanatomical configuration to support conceptual structure. We thus suggest that the neural preconditions for language are met in H. habilis. Finally, we advocate a theory of language acquisition that uses conceptual structure as input to the learning procedures, thus bridging the gap between it and language.

Keywords

conceptual structureevolutionHomo habilislanguage acquisitionlanguage biologylanguage originneurolinguisticspaleoneurologypreadaptationsensorimotor feedback
Type
Target Articles
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 18 , Issue 1: An International Journal of Current Research and Theory with Open Peer Commentary , March 1995 , pp. 161 - 182
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aboitiz, F. (1988) Epigenesis and the evolution of the human brain. Medical Hypotheses 25:55–9. [aWKW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, M. P., Naeser, M. A. & Palumbo, C. L. (1987) Correlations of subcortical CT lesion sites and aphasia profiles. Brain 110:961–91. [PL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allman, J. (1990) The origin of the neocortex. Seminars in the Neurosciences 2:257–62. [BJ]Google Scholar
Allott, R. (1989) The motor theory of language origins. Book Guild. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Allott, R. (1992) The motor theory of language: Origin and function. In: Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Arensburg, B., Schepartz, L. A., Tillier, A.-M., Vandermeersch, B. & Rak, Y. (1990) A reappraisal of the anatomical basis for speech in middle paleolithic hominids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 80:137–46. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Armstrong, D. F., Stokoe, W. C. & Wilcox, S. E. (1994) Signs of the origin of syntax. Current Anthropology 35. [MCC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, E., Zilles, K., Curtis, M. & Schleicher, A. (1991) Cortical folding, the lunate sulcus and the evolution of the human brain. Journal of Human Evolution 20:341–48. [aWKW, RLH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, E., Zilles, K., Curtis, M. & Schleicher, A. (1993) Cortical folding and the evolution of the human brain. Journal of Human Evolution 25:387–92. [aWKW, RLH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, P., vonBonin, G. & McCulloch, W. S. (1950) The isocortcx of the chimpanzee. University of Illinois Press. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Bates, E. & Marchman, V. A. (1988) What is and is not universal in language acquisition. In: Language, communication, and the brain, ed. Plum, F.. Raven Press. [BJ]Google Scholar
Bates, E., Wulfeck, B. & Macwhinney, B. (1991) Cross-linguistic research in aphasia: An overview. Brain and Language 41:123–48. [MD]Google Scholar
Begun, D. & Walker, A. (1993) The endoeast. In: The Nariokotome Homo erectus skeleton, ed. Walker, A. ‘ Leakey, R. E.. Harvard University Press. [RLH]Google Scholar
Benson, F. (1993) Progressive frontal dysfunction. Dementia 4:149–53. [BJ]Google Scholar
Berndt, R. S. ‘ Caramazza, A. (1980) A redefinition of the syndrome of Broca's aphasia: Implications for a neuropsychological model of language. Applied Psycholinguistics 1:225–78. [aWKW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biekerton, D. (1988) Creole languages and the bioprogram. In: Linguistics: The Cambridge survey, vol. 2, ed. Newmeyer, F.. Cambridge University Press. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Biekerton, D. (1990) Language and species. University of Chicago Press. [aWKW, DB, DJB, BJ]Google Scholar
Biekerton, D.(in press) Language and human behavior. University of Washington Press. [DB]Google Scholar
Bishop, D. V. M. & Edmundson, A. (1987) Language-impaired 4-year-olds: Distinguishing transient from persistent impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders 52:156–73. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Blount, B. G. (1990) Issues in bonobo (Pan paniscus) sexual behavior. American Anthropologist 702–14. [JL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bock, W. J. (1959) Preadaptation and multiple evolutionary pathways. Evolution 13:194–21. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Boesch, C. (1993) Aspects of transmission of tool-use in wild chimpanzees. In: Tools, language and cognition in human evolution, ed. Gibson, K. R. & Ingold, T.. Cambridge University Pruss. [rWKW, PL]Google Scholar
Bohannon, J. N. III & Stanowicz, L. (1988) The issue of negative evidence: Adult responses to children's language errors. Developmental Psychology 24:684–89. [BJ]Google Scholar
Bonner, J. T. (1980) The evolution of culture in animals. Princeton University Press. [JLI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bossom, J. (1974) Movement without proprioception. Brain Research 3:309–11. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Braak, H. (1980) Architectonics of the human telencephalic cortex. Springer-Verlag. [rWKW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braitenberg, V. & Schulz, A. (1992) Basic features of cortical connectivity and some consideration on language. In: Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Brandon, R. N. & Hornstein, N. (1986) From icons to symbols: Some speculations on the origins of language. Biology and Philosophy 1:169–89. [aWKW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broca, P. (1861) Remarques sur le siège de la faculté du langage articule, suivies d'une observation d'aphemie (perte de la parole). Bulletins de la Societé Anatomique de Paris 36(2):330–57. [EW]Google Scholar
Burr, D. B. (1976) Rhodesian man and the evolution of speech. Current Anthropology 17:762–63. [PL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calvin, W. H. (1982) Did throwing stones shape hominid brain evolution? Ethology and Sociobiology 3:115–24. [aWKW, BJ]Google Scholar
Calvin, W. H. (1983a) A stone's throw and its launch window: Timing precision and its implications for language and hominid brains. Journal of Theoretical Biology 104:121–35. [aWKW, RLH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calvin, W. H. (1983b) The throwing Madonna: Essays on the brain. McGraw Hill. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Calvin, W. H. (1992) Evolving mixed-media messages and grammatical language: Secondary uses of the neural sequencing machinery needed for ballistic movements. In: Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Candland, D. K. (1993) Feral children and clever animals: Reflections on human nature. Oxford University Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Carpenter, R. H. S. (1990) Neurophysiology, 2d ed.Arnold, Edward. [EW]Google Scholar
Carroll, J. M. (1980) Creative analogy and language evolution. Journal of Psycholinguists Research 9:595–617. [DJB]Google Scholar
Castaigne, P., Lhermitte, F., Signoret, J. -L. & Abelanat, R. (1980) Description et étude scannographique du cerveau de Leborgne. La decouverte de Broca. Revue neurologique 136:563–83. [EW]Google Scholar
Catania, A. C. (1985) Rule-governed behavior and the origins of language. In: Behavior analysis and contemporary psychology, ed. Lowe, C. F., Richelle, M., Blackman, D. E. & Bradshaw, C.. Erlbaum. [ACC]Google Scholar
Catania, A. C. (1990) What good is five percent of a language competence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:729–31. [ACC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catania, A. C. (1991) The phylogeny and ontogeny of language function. In: Biological and behavioral determinants of language development, ed. Krasnegor, N. A., Rumbaugh, D. M., Schiefelbusch, R. L. & Studdert-Kennedy, M.. Erlbaum. [ACC]Google Scholar
Catania, A. C. (1992) Learning, 3d ed.Prentice Hall. [ACC]Google Scholar
Catania, A. C. (1993) Three varieties of selection and their implications for the origins of language. Paper presented at meeting of Language Origins Society, St. Petersburg, Russia. [ACC]Google Scholar
Catania, A. C., Matthews, B. A. & Shimoff, E. H. (1990) Properties of rulegovemed behaviour and their implications. In: Behaviour analysis in theory and practice, ed. Blackman, D. E. & Lejeune, H.. Erlbaum. [ACC]Google Scholar
Cheney, D. L. & Seyfarth, R. M. (1990) How monkeys see the world. University of Chicago Press. [aWKW, ACC, KRG, RWM]Google Scholar
Chernigovskaya, T. (1990) Modes of consciousness: Cultural, functional and neurophysiological dimensions. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Language Origins Society, Volendam, The Netherlands. [JLi]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1986) Knowledge of language: Its nature, origin, and use. Praeger. [MDH]Google Scholar
Cohen, R., Kelter, S. & Woll, G. (1980) Analytical competence and language impairment in aphasia. Brain and Language 10:331–47. [rWKW]Google Scholar
de Condillac, E. B. (1947) Essai sur l'origine des connaissances hutnaines, ouvrage où l'on reduit a tin seul principe tout ce que concerne l'entendement. Oeuvres philosophiques de Condillac. Georges Leroy (Paris, originally published 1746). [MCC]Google Scholar
Connolly, C. J. (1950) The external morphology of the primate brain. C. C. Thomas. [RLH]Google Scholar
Corballis, M. C. (1991) The lopsided ape. Oxford University Press. [rWKW, MCC, MD]Google Scholar
Corballis, M. C. (1992) On the evolution of language and generativity. Cognition 44:197–226. [rWKW, MCC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corballis, M. C. (1994) The generation of generativity: A response to Bloom. Cognition 51:191–98. [MCC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crick, F. & Jones, E. (1993) Backwardness of human neuroanatomy. Nature 361:109–10. [EW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cronkhite, G. (1990) Psychosemiotics. In: The semiotic web, ed. Sebeok, T. A. & Umiker-Sebeok, J.. Mouton de Gruyter. [JLi]Google Scholar
Culicover, P. W. & Wilkins, W. K. (1984) Locality in linguistic theory. Academic Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Culicover, P. W. (1986) Control, PRO, and the projection principle. Language 62:120–53. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Curtiss, S. (1977) Genie: A psycholinguistic study of a modern-day “wild child”. Academic Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Damasio, A. & Damasio, H. (1992) Brain and language. Scientific American 267:88–109. [MD]Google Scholar
Dart, R. A. (1925) Australopithecus africanus: The ape-man of South Africa. Nature 115:195–99. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Darwin, C. C. (1871) The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. Murray. [aWKW, SFW]Google Scholar
Davenport, R. K. & Rogers, C. M. (1970) Intermodal equivalence of stimuli in apes. Science 168:279–80. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Davidson, I. & Noble, W. (1993) Tools and language in human evolution. In: Tools, language and cognition in human evolution, ed. Gibson, K. R. & Ingold, T.. Cambridge University Press. [PL]Google Scholar
Dawkins, M. S. (1989) Attitudes to animals. In: The fragile environment: The Darwin College lectures, ed. Friday, L. & Laskey, R.. Cambridge University Press. [BJ]Google Scholar
Deacon, T. (1984) Connections of the inferior periarcuate area in the brain of Macaco fascicularis: An experimental and comparative investigation of language circuitry and its evolution. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Deacon, T. (1992) The neural circuitry underlying primate calls and human language. In: Language origins: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [arWKW, RHF, MDH]Google Scholar
Dekkers, M. E. J. & Heikens, D. (1986) Interfacial effects on local deformation mechanisms in glass bead-filled glassy polymers. In: Composite interfaces, ed. Ishido, H. & Koenig, J. L.. Elsevier Science. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. (1991) Consciousness explained. Little, Brown. [MD]Google Scholar
De Renzi, E. & Lucchetti, F. (1988) Ideational apraxia. Brain 111:1173–85. [JS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dewson, J. H. III (1977) Preliminary evidence of hemispheric asymmetry of auditory function in monkeys. In: Lateralization in the nervous system, ed. Hamad, S., Doty, R. W., Goldstein, L., Jaynes, J. & Krauthamer, G.. Academic Press. [RHF]Google Scholar
Dewson, J. H. III, Cowey, A. & Weiskrantz, L. (1970) Disruptions of auditory sequence discrimination by unilateral and bilateral cortical ablations of superior temporal gyrus in the monkey. Experimental Neurology 28:529–49. [RHF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, I. T. (1979) The subdivisions of the neocortex: A proposal to revise the traditional view of sensory, motor, and association areas. Progress in Psychobiology and Physiological Psychology 8:1–43. [HJJ]Google Scholar
Dingwall, W. O. (1988) The evolution of human communicative behavior. In: Linguistics: The Cambridge survey, vol. 3, Language: Psychological and biological aspects, ed. Newmeyer, F. J.. Cambridge University Press. [rWKW, WOD, AM]Google Scholar
Dingwall, W. O.(1991) Broca's contributions to physical anthropology related to the brain and its function. The Georgetown Journal of Language and Linguistics 2(1):49–75. [WOD]Google Scholar
Donald, M. (1991) Origins of the modern mind: Three stages in the evolution of culture and cognition. Harvard University Press. [MD, JLi]Google Scholar
Donald, M.(1993) Précis of Origins of the modern mind: Three stages in the evolution of culture and cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16:737–91. [MD, SFW]Google Scholar
Dronkers, N. (1993) Cerebral localization of production deficits in aphasia. National Center for Neurogenic Communication Disorders. [WOD]Google Scholar
Du Bois, J. (1987) The discourse basis of ergativity. Language 63:805–55. [FJN]Google Scholar
du Boulay, G. H. (1965) Principles of xray diagnosis of the skull. Butterworth. [EW]Google Scholar
Duchin, L. E. (1990) The evolution of articulate speech: Comparative anatomy of the oral cavity in Pan and Homo. Journal of Human Evolution 19:687–97. [rWKW, MCC]Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1993) Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16:681–735. [BJ, SFW]Google Scholar
Ehret, G. (1987) Left hemisphere advantage in the mouse brain for recognizing ultrasonic communication calls. Nature 325:249–51. [RHF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eidelberg, D. & Calaburda, A. M. (1984) Inferior parietal lobule: Divergent architectonic asymmetries in the human brain. Archives of Neurology 41:843–52. [arWKW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ettlinger, G. (1981) The relationship between metaphorical and cross-modal abilities: Failure to demonstrate metaphorical recognition in chimpanzees capable of cross-modal recognition. Neuropsychologia 19:583–86. [arWKW, RWM]Google Scholar
Ettlinger, G. & Wilson, W. A. (1990) Cross-modal performance: Behavioural processes, phylogenetic considerations and neural mechanisms. Behavioural Brain Research 40:169–92. [aWKW, RWM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eubank, L. & Gregg, K. R. (1995) Et in amygdala ego: UG, (S)LA and neurobiology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 17. [BJ]Google Scholar
Evarts, E. V. (1981) Functional studies of the motor cortex. In: The organization of the cerebral cortex, ed. Schmitt, F. O., Worden, F. G., Adelman, G. & Dennis, S. G.. MIT Press. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Evarts, E. V. & Fromm, C. (1978) The pyramidal tract neuron as a summing point in a closed-loop control system in the monkey. In: Progress in clinical neurophysiology, vol. 4: Cerebral motor control in man, ed. Desmed, John E.. Karger. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Falk, D. (1980) A re-analysis of the South African australopithecine natural endocasts. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 53:525–39. [aWKW, RLH]Google Scholar
Falk, D. (1983a) The Taung endocast: A reply to Holloway. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 60:479–80. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Falk, D. (1983b) Cerebral cortices of East African early hominids. Science 221:1072–74. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Falk, D. (1985a) Apples, oranges and the lunate sulcus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 67:313–15. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Falk, D. (1985b) Hadar AL 162–28 endocast as evidence that brain enlargement preceded cortical reorganization in hominid evolution. Nature 313:45–47. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Falk, D. (1992) Implications of the evolution of writing for the origin of language: Can a paleoneurologist find happiness in the Neolithic? In: Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Falk, D., Hildebolt, C. F. & Vannier, M. W. (1989) Reassessment of the Taung early hominid from a neurological perspective. Journal of Human Evolution 18:485–92. [aWKWJ]Google Scholar
Farah, M. (1994) Neuropsychological inference with an interactive brain: A critique of the “locality” assumption. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:43–104. [MD]Google Scholar
Feldman, H., Goldin-Meadow, S. & Gleitman, L. (1977) Beyond Herodotus: The creation of language by linguistically deprived deaf children. In: Action, gesture and symbol: The emergence of language, ed. Lock, A.. Academic Press. [aWKW, MCC, JLi]Google Scholar
Fernald, A. (1991) Prosody in speech to children: Prelinguistic and linguistic functions. In: Annals of child development, ed. Vasta, R.. Kingsley [BJ]Google Scholar
Fischman, J. (1994) New clues surface about the making of the mind. Science 262:1517. [KRG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitch, R. H., Brown, C. P., O'Connor, K. & Tallal, P. (1993) Functional lateralization for auditory temporal processing in male and female rats. Behavioral Neuroscicnce 107:844–50. [RHF]Google Scholar
Fitch, R. H., Tallal, P., Brown, C., Galaburda, A. & Rosen, G. D. (1994) Induced microgyria and auditory temporal processing in rats: A model for language impairment? Cerebral Cortex 4:260–70. [RHF]Google Scholar
Fitts, P. M. (1954) The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology 47:381–91. [JS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleagle, J. G. (1988) Primate adaptation and evolution. Academic Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Foley, R. (1987) Hominid species and stone tool assemblages. Antiquity 61:380–92. [MCC]Google Scholar
Foley, R. (1990) The causes of brain enlargement in human evolution. Commentary on Falk, Brain evolution in Homo: The “radiator” theory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:354–56. [BJ]Google Scholar
Fox, P. T, Peterson, S., Posner, M. & Raichle, M. E. (1988) Is Broca's area language-specific? Neurology 38:172. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Fromm, C. & Evarts, E. V. (1977) Relation of motor control neurons to precisely controlled ballistic movements. Neuroscience Letters 5:259–65. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Fuster, J. M. (1985) The prefrontal cortex and temporal integration. In: Cerebral Cortex, vol. 4, ed. Peters, A. & Jones, E. G.. Plenum Press. [BJ]Google Scholar
Futuyma, D. J. (1986) Evolutionary biology, 2d ed.Sinauer. [aWKW]Google ScholarPubMed
Gaffan, D. & Harrison, S. (1991) Auditory-visual associations, hemispheric specialization and temporal-frontal interaction in the rhesus monkey. Brain 114:2133–44. [RHF, BJ]Google Scholar
Galaburda, A. M. & Pandya, D. (1982) Role of architectonics and connections in the study of primate brain evolution. In: Primate brain evolution: Methods and concepts, ed. Armstrong, E. & Falk, D.. Plenum. [rWKW, WOD]Google Scholar
Galaburda, A. M. & Sanides, F. (1980) Cytoarchitectonic organization of the human auditory cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology 190:597–610. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Galaburda, A. M., Sanides, F. & Geschwind, N. (1978) Human brain: Cytoarchitectonic left-right asymmetries in the temporal speech region. Archives of neurology 35:812–17. [aWKW, HJJ]Google Scholar
Gardner, B. T. & Gardner, R. A. (1971) Two-way communication with an infant chimpanzee. In: Behavior of non-human primates, vol. 4, ed. Schrier, A. M. & Stolnitz, F.. Academic Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Gardner, R. A., Gardner, B. T. & Drumm, P. (1989) Voiced and signed responses of cross-fostered chimpanzees. In: Teaching sign language to chimpanzees, ed. Gardner, R. A., Gardner, B. T. & Van Cantfort, T. E.. State University of New York Press. [RWM]Google Scholar
Gardner, R. A., Gardner, B. T. & Van Cantfort, T. E., eds. (1989) Teaching sign language to chimpanzees. State University of New York Press. [KRG]Google Scholar
Geschwind, N. (1964) The development of the brain and the evolution of language. In: Monograph series on language and linguistics, vol. 17, ed. Stuart, C. I. J. M.. Georgetown University Press. [arWKW, WOD]Google Scholar
Geschwind, N. (1965) Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man. Brain 88:237–94, 585–644. [aWKW, EW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geschwind, N. (1970a) The organization of language and the brain. Science 170:940–44. [EW]Google Scholar
Geschwind, N. (1970b) Intermodal equivalence of stimuli in apes. Science 168:1249. [rWKW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geschwind, N. & Levitsky, W. (1968) Human brain: Left-right asymmetries in temporal speech region. Science 161:186–87. [aWKW, HJJ]Google Scholar
Ghiglieri, M. P. (1989) Hominoid sociobiology and hominid social evolution. In: Understanding chimpanzees, ed. Heltne, P. G. & Marquardt, L. A.. Harvard University Press. [RWM]Google Scholar
Gibbons, A. (1992) Chimpanzees: More diverse than a barrel of monkeys. Science 255:287–88. [JL]Google Scholar
Gibson, K. R. (1983) Comparative neurobehavioral ontogeny: The constructionist perspective in the evolution of the brain, object manipulation, and language. In: Glossogenetics: The origin and evolution of language, ed. De Grolier, E.. Harwood Academic Press. [KRG]Google Scholar
Gibson, K. R. (1988) Brain size and the evolution of language. In: The genesis of language: A different judgment of evidence, ed. Landsberg, M.. Mouton de Gruyter. [KRG]Google Scholar
Gibson, K. R. (1990) Neurological perspectives of animal and human intelligence: New approaches to the instinct versus learning controversy. In: Language and intelligence in monkeys and apes, ed. Parker, S. & Gibson, K.. Cambridge University Press. [KRG]Google Scholar
Gibson, K. R. (1991) Tools, language and intelligence: Evolutionary implications. Man 26:602–61. [KRG]Google Scholar
Gibson, K. R. (1993)Overlapping neural control of language, gesture and tool use. In: Tools, language and cognition in human evolution, ed. Gibson, K. R. & Ingold, T.. Cambridge University Press. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Gibson, K. R. (1994) Continuity theories of language origins versus the Lieberman model. Language and Communication 14:97–114. [KRC]Google Scholar
Gibson, K. R. & Ingold, T., eds. (1993) Tools, language and cognition. In: Human evolution. Cambridge University Press. [KRG]Google Scholar
Gibson, K. R. & Jessee, S. A. (1994) Cranial base shape and laryngeal position: Implications for hominid evolution. American Journal of Physical Anthropology (Supplement) 18:93. [PL]Google Scholar
Goldin-Meadow, S. & Mylander, C. (1990) Beyond the input given: The child's role in the acquisition of language. Language 66:323–55. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1984) The frontal lobes: Uncharted provinces of the brain. Trends in Neurosciences 7:425–29. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. & Vrba, E. S. (1982) Exaptation – a missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8:4–15. [aWKW, DJB]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. & Eldredge, N. (1977) Punctuated equilibria: The “tempo” and “mode” of evolution reconsidered. Paleobiology 3:115–51. [MCC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenfield, P. M. (1991) Language, tools and brain: The ontogeny and phylogeny of hierarchically organized sequential behavior. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14:531–95. [arWKW, MD, BJ]Google Scholar
Grodzinsky, Y. (1984) The syntactic characterization of agrammatism. Cognition 16:99–120. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Grodzinsky, Y. (1986) Language deficits and the theory of syntax. Brain and Language 27:135–59. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Grosmangin, C. (1979) Base du crane et pharynx dans leur rapports avec l'appareil de langage articule. Memoires du Laboratoire d'Anatomic de la Faculté de Medicine de Paris, no. 40. [PL]Google Scholar
Grossman, M. (1980) A central processor for hierarchically structured material: Evidence from Broca's aphasia. Neuropsychologia 18:299–308. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Grossman, M., Carvell, S., Gollomp, S., Stern, M. B., Vernon, G. & Hurtig, H. I. (1991) Sentence comprehension and praxis deficits in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 41:160–1628. [PL]Google Scholar
Grossman, M., Carvell, S., Stern, M. B., Gollomp, S. & Hurtig, H. I. (1992) Sentence comprehension in Parkinson's disease: The role of attention and memory. Brain and Language 42:347–84. [PL]Google Scholar
Gruber, J. (1965) Studies in lexical relations. Doctoral dissertation, MIT. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Gruber, J. (1967) Look and see. Language 43:937–47. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Hailman, J. P. & Ficken, M. S. (1987) Combinatorial animal communication with computable syntax: Chick-a-dee calling qualifies as “language” by structural linguistics. Animal Behaviour 34:1899–1901. [MDH]Google Scholar
Hailman, J. P., Ficken, M. S. & Ficken, R. W. (1987) Constraints on the structure of combinatorial “chick-a-dee” calls. Ethology 75:62–80. [MDH]Google Scholar
Hardin, G. (1994) Living within limits: Ecology, economics, and population taboos. Science 264:85. [KRC]Google Scholar
Harlow, H. (1949) The formation of learning sets. Psychological Reviews 56:51–56. [KRC]Google Scholar
Harnad, S. (1987) Catagorical perception: The groundwork of cognition. Cambridge University Press. [MDH]Google Scholar
Harrington, A. (1991) Beyond phrenology: Localization theory in the modern era. In: The enchanted loom: Chapters in the history of neuroscience, ed. Corsi, P..Oxford University Press. [BJ]Google Scholar
Harris, J. W. K. (1983) Cultural beginnings: Plio-pleislocene archaeological occurrences from the Afar, Ethiopia. African Arcliaeological Review 1:3–31. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Hauser, M. D. & Andersson, K. (1994) Left hemisphere dominance for processing vocalizations in adult, but not infant rhesus monkeys: Field experiments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. [MDH]Google Scholar
Head, H. (1926) Aphasia and kindred disorders of speech. Cambridge University Press. [SFW]Google Scholar
Heffner, H. E. & Heffher, R. S. (1984) Temporal lobe lesions and perception of species-specific vocalizations by macaques. Science 226:76. [MDH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heffner, H. E. (1986) Effects of unilateral and bilateral auditory cortex lesions on the discrimination of vocalizations by Japanese macaques. Journal of Neurophysiology 56:683–701. [RHF]Google Scholar
Heilbroner, P. & Holloway, R. (1989) Anatomical brain asymmetry in monkeys: Frontal, temporoparietal and limbic cortex in Macaco. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 80:203–11. [AM]Google Scholar
Herman, L. M. (1986) Cognition and language competencies of bottlenosed dolphins. In: Dolphin behavior and cognition: Comparative and ecological aspects, ed. Schusterman, R., Thomas, J. & Wood, F.. Erlbaum [JL]Google Scholar
Hewes, G. W. (1973) Primate communication and the gestural origins of language. Current Anthropology 14:5–24. [DB, MCC]Google Scholar
Hewes, G. W. (1992) History of glottogonic theories. In: Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Hinton, J. & Shallice, T. (1991) Lesioning an attractor network: Investigations of acquired dyslexia. Psychological Review 98:74–95. [MD]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1967) The evolution of the human brain: Some notes toward a synthesis between neural structure and the evolution of complex behavior. General Systems 12:3–19. [RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1969) Culture: A human domain. Current Anthropology 10:395–412. [RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1970) Neural parameters, hunting and the evolution of the human brain. In: Advances in primatology, vol. 1: The primate brain, ed. Noback, C. R. & Montagna, W.. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1974) The casts of fossil hominid brains. Scientific American 231:106–15. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1975) Early hominid endocasts: Volumes, morphology and significance for hominid evolution. In: Primate functional morphology and evolution, ed. Tuttle, R. H.. Mouton de Gruyter. [aWKW, RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1975) The role of human social behavior in the evolution of the brain. James Arthur lecture on the evolution of the human brain. American Museum of Natural History. [RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1976) Paleoneurological evidence for language origins. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280:330–48. [RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1978) Problems of brain endocast interpretation and African hominid evolution. In: Early hominids of Africa, ed. , C. Jolly. Duckworth. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1979) Brain size, allometry, and reorganization: Toward a synthesis. In: Development and evolution of brain size, ed. Hahn, M. E., Jensen, C. & Dudek, B. C.. Academic Press. [RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1981) Cultural symbols and brain evolution. Dialectical Anthropology 5:287–303. [RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1981) Revisiting the South African Taung australopithecine endocast: The position of the lunate sulcus as determined by the stereoplotting technique. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 56:43–58. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1983a) Human brain evolution: A search for units, models and synthesis. Canadian Journal of Anthropology 3:215–30. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1983b) Human paleontological evidence relevant to language behavior. Human Neurobiology 2:105–14. [aWKW, RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1983c) Cerebral brain endocast pattern of Australopithecus aferensis hominid. Nature 303:420–22. [aWKW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1984) The Taung endocast and the lunate sulcus: A rejection of the hypothesis of its anterior position. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 64:285–87. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1985) The past, present and future significance of the lunate sulcus in early hominid evolution. In: Hominid evolution: Past, present and future, ed. Tobias, P. V.. Liss. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1988) “Robust” Australopithecine brain endocasts: Some preliminary observations. In: Evolutionary history of the robust Australopithecines, ed. Grine, F. E.. Aldine de Gruyter. [RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. (1992) The failure of the gyrification index (GI) to account for volumetric reorganization in the evolution of the human brain. Journal of Human Evolution 22:163–70. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L.(in press) Toward a synthetic theory of human brain evolution. Fyssen Foundation conference 1990: Origins of the human brain. Oxford University Press. [RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. & DeLaCoste-Lareymondie, M. C. (1982) Brain endocast asymmetry in pongids and hominids: Some preliminary findings on the paleontology of cerebral dominance. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 58:101–11. [aWKW, RLH]Google Scholar
Holloway, R. L. & Kimbel, W. H. (1986) Endocast morphology of Hadar AL162–28. Nature 321–536. [RLH]Google Scholar
Hörster, W., Rivers, A., Schuster, B., Ettlinger, G., Skreczek, W. & Hesse, W. (1989) The neural structures involved in cross-modal recognition and tactile discrimination performance: An investigation using 2-DG. Behavioural Brain Research 33:209–27. [arWKW]Google Scholar
Houghton, P. (1993) Neanderthal supralaryngeal vocal tract. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 90:139–46. [PL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howard, D., Patterson, K., Wise, R., Douglas Brown, W., Friston, K., Weiller, C. & Frackowiak, R. (1992) The cortical localization of the lexicons: Positron emission tomography evidence. Brain 115:1769–80. [SFW]Google Scholar
Humphrey, K., Tees, R. C. & Werker, J. (1979) Auditory-visual integration of temporal relations in infants. Canadian Journal of Psychology 33:347–52. [arWKW]Google Scholar
Hurford, J. R. (1989) Biological evolution of the Saussurean sign as a component of the language acquisition device. Lingua 77:187–222. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Isaac, B. (1987) Throwing and human evolution. African Archaeological Review 5:3–17. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Isaac, G. L. (1981) Emergence of human behavior patterns. Archaeological tests of alternative models of early hominid behavior: Excavation and experiments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 292:177–78. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Isaac, G. L. (1984) The archaeology of human origins: Studies of the lower Pleistocene in East Africa, 1971–1981. In: Advances in world archaeology, vol. 3, ed. Wendorf, F. & Close, A.. Academic Press. [AM]Google Scholar
Jackendoff, R. (1972) Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. MIT Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Isaac, G. L. (1983) Semantics and cognition. MIT Press. [aWKW, DB]Google Scholar
Isaac, G. L. (1987) The status of thematic relations in linguistic theory. Linguistic Inquiry 18:369–411. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Isaac, G. L. (1990) Semantic structures. MIT Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Jackson, J. H. (1883/1932) Selected Writings, vol. 2: Evolution and dissolution of the nervous system, ed. , J. Taylor. Hodder and Stoughton. [SFW]Google Scholar
Jacobs, B. (1988) Neurobiological differentiation of primary and secondary language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 10:303–37. [BJ]Google Scholar
Jacobs, B. (1995) Dis-integrating perspectives of language acquisition: A response to Eubank and Gregg. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 17. [BJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, B. & Scheibel, A. B. (1993) A quantitative dendritic analysis of Wernicke's area in humans. 1. Lifespan changes. Journal of Comparative Neurology 327:83–96. [BJ]Google Scholar
Jacobs, B. & Schumann, J. (1992) Language acquisition and the neurosciences: Towards a more integrative perspective. Applied Linguistics 13:282–301. [BJ]Google Scholar
Jaroszewski, W. (1984) Fault and fold tectonics. Ellis Horwood. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Jason, G. W. (1990) Disorders of motor function following cortical lesions: Review and theoretical considerations. In: Cerebral control of speech and limb movements, ed. Hammond, G. R.. North-Holland. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Jerison, H. J. (1973) Evolution of the brain and intelligence. Academic Press. [aWKW, HJJ]Google Scholar
Jerison, H. J. (1976a) Paleoneurology and the evolution of mind. Scientific American 234:90–91. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Jerison, H. J. (1976b) Paleoneurology and the evolution of language. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280:370–82. [HJJ]Google Scholar
Jerison, H. J. (1988) Evolutionary neurology and the origin of language as a cognitive adaptation. In: The genesis of language: A different judgment of evidence ed. , M. E. Landsberg. Mouton de Gruyter. [HJJ]Google Scholar
Jerison, H. J. (1990) Fossil evidence on the evolution of the neocortex. In: Cerebral cortex, vol. 8a: Comparative structure and evolution of cerebral cortex, part 1, ed. Jones, E. G. & Peters, A.. Plenum Press. [aWKW, RLH]Google Scholar
Jerison, H. J. (1991) Brain size and the evolution of mind. American Museum of Natural History. [HJJ]Google Scholar
Johanson, D. C., Masao, F. T, Eck, G. G., White, T. D., Walter, R. C, Kimbel, W. R., Asfaw, B., Manega, P., Ndessokia, P. & Suwa, G. (1987) New partial skeleton of Homo habilis from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Nature 327:205–9. [JL]Google Scholar
Johnson, S. C. (1981) Bonobos: Generalized hominid prototypes or specialized insular dwarfs? Current Anthropology 22:363–75. [JL]Google Scholar
Jones, E. G. & Powell, T. P. S. (1970) An anatomical study of converging sensory pathways within the cerebral cortex of the monkey. Brain 93:793–820. [HJJ]Google Scholar
Jürgcns, U. (1976) Projections from the cortical larynx area in the squirrel monkey. Experimental Brain Research 25:401–11. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Jusczyk, P. W, Cutler, A. & Redanz, N. J. (1993) Infant's preference for the predominant stress patterns of English words. Child Development 64:675–87. [BJ]Google Scholar
Kaas, J. & Pons, T. P. (1988) The somatosensory system of primates. In: Neurosciences: Comparative primate biology, ed. Steklis, H. & Erwin, J.. Liss. [AM]Google Scholar
Kano, T. & Mulavwa, M. (1984) Feeding ecology of the pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) of Wamba. In: The pygmy chimpanzee, ed. Susman, R. L.. Plenum Press. [JL]Google Scholar
Katz, M. J. & Lasek, R. J. (1978) Evolution of the nervous system: Role of ontogenetic mechanisms in the evolution of matching populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 75:1349–52. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Kean, M.-L. (1977) The linguistic interpretation of aphasic syndromes: Agrammatism in Broca's aphasia, an example. Cognition 5:9–46. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Kean, M.-L. (1980) Grammatical representations and the description of language processing. In: Biological studies of mental processes, ed. Caplan, D.. MIT Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Kelleher, R. T. (1964) Concept formation in chimpanzees. In: Comparative psychology: Research in animal behavior, ed. Ratner, S. C. & Denny, M. R.. Dorsey Press. [KRG]Google Scholar
Kimura, D. (1987) Are men's and women's brains really different? Canadian Journal of Psychology 28:133–47. [MD]Google Scholar
Kimura, D. (1993) Neuromotor mechanisms in human communication. Oxford University Press. [PL]Google Scholar
J., Kingdon. (1993) Self-made man. Wiley. [PL]Google Scholar
Klein, S. (1990) Human cognitive changes at the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition: The evidence of Boker Tachtit. In: The emergence of modern humans. Cornell University Press. [MCC]Google Scholar
Kolb, B. & Whishaw, I.Q. (1990) Fundamentals of human neuropsychology, 3d ed.Freeman. [rWKW, BJ]Google Scholar
Kuhl, P. K. (1989) On babies, birds, modules, and mechanisms: A comparative approachto the acquisition of vocal communication. In: The comparative psychology of audition, ed. Dooling, R. J. & Hulse, S. H.. Erlbaum. [MDH]Google Scholar
Kuhl, P. K. & Meltzoff, A. N. (1982) The bimodal perception of speech in infancy. Science 218:1138–41. [RWM]Google Scholar
Kuypers, H. G. J. M. (1958) Corticobulbar connexions to the pons and lower brainstem in man. Brain 81:299–315. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Laitman, J. T.& Heimbuch, R. C. (1982) The basicranium of Plio-Pleistocene hominids as an indicator of their upper respiratory systems. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 59:323–44. [PL]Google Scholar
Laitman, J. T, Heimbuch, R. C. & Crelin, E. S. (1979) The basicranium of fossil hominids as an indicator of their upper respiratory systems. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51:15–34. [PL]Google Scholar
Laitman, J. T, Reidenberg, J. S., Gannon, P. J. (1992) Fossil skullsand hominid vocal tracts: New approaches to charting the evolution of human speech. In: Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Lamcndella, John T. (1976) Relations between the ontogeny and phylogeny of language: A neocapitiilationist view. Annals of the Sew York Academy of Sciences 280:396–412. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Lange, K. W, Robbins, T. W, Marsden, C. D., James, M., Owen, A. M. & Paul, G. M. (1992) L-Dopa withdrawal in Parkinson's disease selectively impairs cognitive performance in tests sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction. Psychophannacology 107:394–404. [PL]Google Scholar
LaPointe, S. G. (1983) Some issues in the linguistic description of agrammatism. Cognition 14:1–39. [aWKW]Google Scholar
LaPointe, S. G. (1985) A theory of verb use in the speech of agrammatic aphasics. Brain and Language 24:100–155. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Lashley, K. S. (1949) Persistent problems in the evolution of mind. The Quarterly Review of Biology 24:28–42. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Leakey, R. E. (1981) The making of mankind. Dutton. [RLH]Google Scholar
Leakey, R. E. & Lowin, R. (1977) Origins. Dutton. [RLH]Google Scholar
Leakey, R. E. (1992) Origins reconsidered. Doubleday. [RLH]Google Scholar
LeGros Clark, W. E., Cooper, D. M. & Zuckerman, S. (1936) The endocranial cast of the chimpanzee. Journal of the Royal Anthropology Institute 66:249–68. [RLH]Google Scholar
LeMay, M. (1976) Morphological cerebral asymmetries of modern man, fossil man, and nonhuman primate. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280:349–66. [aWKW]Google Scholar
LeMay, M. & Geschwind, N. (1975) Hemispheric differences in the brains of great apes. Brain Behavior and Evolution 11: 48–52. [rWKW, RWM]Google Scholar
Lende, R. A. (1969) A comparative approach to the neocortex: Localization in monotremes, marsupials and insectivores. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 167:262–76. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1990) The evolution of cognition. In: An invitation to cognitive science, vol. 3: Thinking, ed. Osherson, N. & Smith, E. E.. MIT Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Leyton, A. S. F. & Sherrington, C. S. (1917) Observations on the excitable cortex of the chimpanzee, orangutan, and gorilla. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 11:136–222. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Liddell, E. G. T. (1960) The discovery of reflexes. Clarendon Press. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (1984) The biology and evolution of language. Harvard University Press. [arWKW, PL]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (1985) On the evolution of human syntactic ability: Its pre-adaptivebases— motor control and speech. Journal of Human Evolution 14:657–66. [aWKW, PL]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (1989) Some biological constraints on universal grammar and learnability. In: The teachability of language, ed. Rice, M. L. & Schiefelbusch, R. L.. Edinburgh University Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (1991) Uniquely human: The evolution of speech, thought, and selfless behavior. Harvard University Press. [MCC, MD, BJ, PL]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (1992) Could an autonomous syntax module have evolved? Brain and Language 43: 768–74. [PL]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (1992) On the evolutionary biology of speech and syntax. In: Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (1993) The Kebara KMH-2 hyoid and Neanderthal speech MDBO. Current Anthropology 34:172–75. [PL]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (in press a) Hyoid bone position and speech: Reply to Arensburg et al. (1990). American Journal of Physical Anthropology. [PL]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. (in press b) Functional tongues and Neanderthal vocal tract reconstruction: A reply to Houghton (1993). American Journal of Physical Anthropology. [PL]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. & Crelin, E. S. (1971) On the speech of Neanderthal man. Linguistic Inquiry 2:203–22. [PL]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P., Friedman, J. & Feldman, L. S. (1990) Syntactic deficits in Parkinson's disease. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 178:360–65. [PL]Google Scholar
Lieberman, P., Kako, E. T, Friedman, J., Tajchman, G., Feldman, L. S. & Jiminez, E. B. (1992) Speech production, syntax comprehension, and cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease. Brain and Language 43:169–89. [PL]Google Scholar
Linebarger, M. C, Schwartz, M. F. & Saffran, E. M. (1983) Sensitivity to grammatical structure in so-called agrammatic aphasics. Cognition 13:361–92. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Liska, J. (1993a) Bee dances, bird songs, monkey calls, and cetacean sonar: Is speech unique? Western Journal of Communication 57:1–26. [JLi]Google Scholar
Liska, J. (1993b) Signs of the apes, songs of the whales: A system for comparing signs across species. European Journal of Cognitive Systems 3–4:381–97. [JLi]Google Scholar
Liska, J. (1994) The foundation of symbolic communication. In: Hominid evolution in primate perspective, ed. Quiatt, D. & Itani, J.. University of Colorado Press. [JLi]Google Scholar
Liska, J. (1995) Sign arbitrariness as an index of semiogenesis. Studies in Language Origins 3:161–77. [JLi]Google Scholar
MacNeilage, P. F., Studdert-Kennedy, M. G. & B., Lindblom (1987) Primate handedness reconsidered. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:247–303. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Maryanski, A. & Turner, J. (1992) The social cage: Human nature and the evolution of society. Stanford University Press. [AM]Google Scholar
Marzke, M. W. (1971) Origin of the human hand. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 34:61–84. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Marzke, M. W. (1983) Joint functions and grips of the Australopithecus afarensis hand, with special reference to the region of the capitate. Journal of Human Evolution 12:197–211. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Marzke, M. W. (1991) Evolution of the hand and bipedality. In: Handbook of human symbolic evolution, ed. Lock, A. & Peters, C.. Oxford University Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Marzke, M. W. & Shackley, M. S. (1986) Hominid hand use in the pliocene and pleistocene: Evidence from experimental archaeology and comparative morphology. Journal of Human Evolution 15:439–60. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Marzke, M. W, Wullstein, K. L. & Viegas, S. F. (1992) Evolution of the power (squeeze) grip and its morphological correlates in hominids. American Journalof Physical Anthropology 89:283–98. [rWKW]Google Scholar
May, B., Moody, D. B. & Stebbins, W. C. (1989) Categorical perception of conspecific communication sounds by Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 85:837–47. [RHF]Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1982) The growth of biological thought. Harvard UniversityPress. [DJB]Google Scholar
McGeer, P., Eccles, J. & McGeer, E. (1987) Molecular neurobiology of the mammalian brain. Plenum Press. [AM]Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C. (1993) The intelligent use of tools: Twenty propositions. In: Tools, language and cognition in human evolution, ed. Gibson, K. R. & Ingold, T.. Cambridge University Press. [PL]Google Scholar
Means, W. D. (1976) Stress and strain: Basic concepts of a continuum mechanics for geologists. Springer-Verlag. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Mesulam, M. M., VanHoesen, G. W., Pandya, D. N. & Geschwind, N. (1977) Limbic and sensory connections of the inferior parietal lobule (area PG) in the rhesus monkey: A study with a new method for horseradish peroxidase histochemistry. Brain Research 136:393–414. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Metter, E. J., Riege, W. H., Hanson, W. R., Phelps, M. E. & Kuhl, D. E. (1984) Local cerebral metabolic rates of glucose in movement and language disorders from positron tomography. American Journal of Physiology 246:R897–R900. [PL]Google Scholar
Miles, H. L. (1983) Apes and language: The search for communicative competence. In: Language in primates, ed. de Luce, J. & Wilder, H. T.. Springer-Verlag. [RWM]Google Scholar
Miles, H. L. (1990) The cognitive foundations for reference in a signing orangutan. In: “Language” and intelligence in monkeys and apes, ed. Parker, S. T. & Cibson, K. R.. Cambridge University Press. [rWKW, KRG, RWM]Google Scholar
Miles, H. L. & Harper, S. E. (1994) “Ape language” studies and the study of human language origins. In: Hominid culture in primate perspective, ed. Quiatt, D. & Itani, J.. University of Colorado Press. [RWM]Google Scholar
Mitchell, R. W. (1994) The evolution of primate cognition: Simulation, self-knowledge and knowledge of other minds. In: Hominid culture in primate perspective, ed. Quiatt, D. & Itani, J.. University of Colorado Press. [RWM]Google Scholar
Mohr, J. (1976) Broca's area and Broca's aphasia. In: Studies in neurolinguistics, vol. 1, ed. Whitaker, H. & Whitaker, H. A.. Academic Press. [WOD]Google Scholar
Mountcastle, V. B. (1978) An organizing principle for cerebral function: The unit module and the distributed system. In: The mindful brain, ed. Edelman, G. M. & Mountcastle, V. B.. MIT Press. [HJJ]Google Scholar
Myers, R. E. (1976) Comparative neurology of vocalization and speech: Proof of adichotomy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280:745–57. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Napier, J. R. & Napier, P. H. (1985) The natural history of the primates. MIT Press. [AM]Google Scholar
Nádai, A. (1959) Theory of flow and fracture of solids. McGraw-Hill. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Newman, J. D. (1992) The primate isolation call and the evolution and physiological control of human speech. In: Language origin: A multidisdplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Newmeyer, F. (1991) Functional explanation in linguistics and the origin of language. Language and Communication 11:3–28. [arWKW]Google Scholar
Nichols, J. (1992) Linguistic diversity in space and time. University of Chicago Press. [MCC]Google Scholar
O'Connor, K. N., Roitblat, H. L. & Bever, T. G. (1992) Auditory sequence complexity and hemispheric asymmetry of function in rats. In: Language and communication: Comparative perspectives, ed. Roitblat, H. L., Herman, L. M. & Nachtigall, P. E.. Erlbaum. [RHF]Google Scholar
Ochipa, C., Rothi, L. J. G. & Heilman, K. M. (1989) Ideational apraxia: A deficit in tool selection and use. Annals of Neurology 25:190–93. [JS]Google Scholar
Ochipa, C., Rothi, L. J. G. & Heilman, K. M. (1992) Conceptual apraxia in Alzheimer's disease. Brain 115:1061–71. [JS]Google Scholar
Ojemann, G. A. (1983) Brain organization for language from the perspective of electrical stimulation mapping. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:189–230. [BJ]Google Scholar
Ojemann, G. A. & Creutzfelt, O. D. (1987) Language in humans and animals: Contribution of brain stimulation and recording. Handbook of physiology: The nervous system, vol. 5. American Physiological Society. [MD]Google Scholar
Ojemann, G. A. & Mateer, C. (1979) Human language cortex: Localization of memory, syntax, and sequential motor-phoneme identification systems. Science 205:1401–3. [PL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ojemann, G. A., Ojemann, F., Lettich, E. & Berger, M. (1989) Cortical language localization in left dominant hemisphere: An electrical stimulation mapping investigation in 117 patients. Journal of Neurosurgery 71:316–26. [PL]Google Scholar
Osgood, C. (1963) On understanding and creating sentences. American Psychologist 18:735–51. [JLi]Google Scholar
O'Sullivan, C. & Yeager, C. P. (1989) Communicative context and linguistic competence: The effects of social setting on a chimpanzee's conversational skill. In: Teaching sign language to chimpanzees, ed. Gardner, R. A., Gardner, B. T., or Van Cantfort, T. E.. State University of New York Press. [RWM]Google Scholar
Pandya, D. & Kuypers, H. (1969) Cortico-cortical connections in the rhesus monkey. Brain Research 13:13–36. [WOD]Google Scholar
Pandya, D. & Yeterian, E. H. (1985) Architecture and connections of cortical association areas. In: Association and auditory cortices, ed. Jones, E. G. & Peters, A.. Plenum Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Parker, S. T. & Gibson, K. R. (1979) A model of the evolution of language and intelligence in early hominids. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:367–400. [KRG]Google Scholar
Passingham, R. E. (1973) Anatomical differences between the neocortex of man and other primates. Brain and Behavioral Evolution 7:337–59. [WOD]Google Scholar
Passingham, R. E. (1982) The human primate. Freeman. [WOD]Google Scholar
Passingham, R. E. (1985) Rates of development in mammals including man. Brain Behavior and Evolution 26:167–75. [AM]Google Scholar
Passingham, R. E. (1987) Two cortical systems for directing movement. In: CIBA foundation symposium 132: Motor areas of the cerebral cortex, ed. Bock, G., O'Connor, M. & Marsh, J.. Wiley. [JS]Google Scholar
Patterson, F. G. (1978) The gestures of a gorilla: Language acquisition in another pongid. Brain and Language 5:72–97. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Payne, D. (1987) Information structuring in Papago narrative discourse. Language 63:783–804. [FJN]Google Scholar
Pelegrin, J. (1990) Prehistoric lithic technology: Some aspects of research. Archaeological Review from Cambridge 9:116–25. [JS]Google Scholar
Pepperberg, I. M. (1987a) Evidence for conceptual quantitative abilities in the African gray parrot: Labeling of cardinal sets. Ethology 75:37–61. [JL]Google Scholar
Pepperberg, I. M. (1987b) Acquisition of the same/different concept by an African gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus): Learning with respect to categories of color, shape, and material. Animal Learning & Behavior 15:423–32. [JL]Google Scholar
Pepperberg, I. M. (1990) Conceptual abilities of an African gray parrot. In: Language and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives, ed. Parker, S. T. & Gibson, K. R.. Cambridge University Press. [JL]Google Scholar
Petersen, M. R., Beecher, M. D., Zoloth, S. R., Green, S., Marler, P. R., Moody, D. B. & Stebbins, W. C. (1984) Neural lateralization of vocalizations by Japanese macaques: Communicative significance is more important than acoustic structure. Behavioral Neuroscience 98:779–90. [RHF]Google Scholar
Petersen, M. R., Beecher, M. D., Zoloth, S. R., Moody, D. B. & Stebbins, W. C. (1978) Neural lateralization of species-specific vocalizations by Japanese macaques (Macaco fuscata). Science 202:325–27. [RHF, MDH]Google Scholar
Petersen, S. E. (1993) The processing of single words studied with positron emission tomography. Annual Review of Neuroscience 16:509–53. [SFW]Google Scholar
Petito, L. A. (1993) On the ontogenetic requirements for early language acquisition, ed. deBoysson-Bardies, B., de Schoen, S., Jusczyk, P., MacNeilage, P. & Morton, J.. Kluwer Academic. [MDH]Google Scholar
Petrides, M. & Pandya, D. N. (1988) Association fiber pathways to the frontal cortex from the superior temporal region in the rhesus monkey. Journal of Comparative Neurology 273:52–66. [rWKW, BJ]Google Scholar
Phillips, C. G. (1969) The motor apparatus of the baboon's hand. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 173:141–74. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Phillips, C. G. & Porter, R. (1977) Corticospinal neurones: Their role in movement. Academic Press. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Piatelli-Palmarini, M. (1989) Evolution, selection, and cognition: From “learning” to parameter-setting in biology and the study of language. Cognition 31:1–44. [MCC]Google Scholar
Pilbeam, D. (1984) The descent of hominoids and hominids. Scientific American 250:84–96. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Piñker, S. (1992) Review of Language and Species by Bickerton, Derek. Language 68(2):375–82. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Piñker, S. (1994) The language instinct. Morrow. [WOD, MDH, BJ]Google Scholar
Pinker, S. & Bloom, P. (1990) Natural language and natural selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:707–84. [aWKW, DJB, ACC, MCC, WOD, BJ]Google Scholar
Piñon, D. & Greenfield, P. M. (1994) Does everybody do it? Hierarchically organized sequential activity in robots, birds and monkeys. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17(2):361. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Ploog, D. (1988) Neurobiology and pathology of subhuman vocal communication and human speech. In: Primate vocal communication, ed. Todt, D., Goedeking, P. & Symmes, D.. Springer-Verlag. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Pogliano, C. (1991) Between form and function: A new science of man. In: The enchanted loom: Chapters in the history of neuroscience, ed. Corsi, P.. Oxford University Press. [BJ]Google Scholar
Poizner, H., Klima, E. S. & Bellugi, U. (1987) What the hands reveal about the brain. MIT Press/Bradford Books. [rWKW, MCC, HJJ]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Raichle, M. E. (1994) Images of mind. Scientific American Library. Freeman. [WOD]Google Scholar
Poulson, C. L. & Kymissis, E. (1988) Generalized imitation in infants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 46:324–36. [ACC]Google Scholar
Poulson, C. L., Kymissis, E., Reeve, K. F., Andreatos, M. & Reeve, L. (1991) Generalized vocal imitation in infants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 5:267–79. [ACC]Google Scholar
Premack, D. (1976) Intelligence in apes and man. Erlbaum. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Putnam, C. A. (1993) Sequential motions of body segments in striking and throwing skills: Descriptions and explanations. Journal of Biomcchanics 6(1): 125–35. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Radford, A. (1988) Transformational grammar: A first course. Cambridge university Press. [FJN]Google Scholar
Radinsky, L. (1968) A new approach to mammalian cranial analysis, illustrated by examples of prosimian primates. Journal of Morphology 124:167–80. [aVVKW]Google Scholar
Reynolds, P. C. (1976) Language and skilled activity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280:150–66. [RWM]Google Scholar
Reynolds, P. C. (1981) On the evolution of human behavior. University of California Press. [JLi]Google Scholar
Rice, J. R. (1976) The localization of plastic deformation. In: Theoretical and applied mechanics: Proceedings of the 14th IUTAM congress, ed. Koiter, W. T.. North-Holland Publishing. [aWKYV]Google Scholar
Rizzolatti, G. (1987) Functional organization of inferior area 6. In: Ciba foundation symposium 132: Motor areas of the cerebral cortex, ed. Bock, G., O'Connor, M. & Marsh, J.. Wiley. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Robinson, B. W. (1972) Anatomical and physiological contrasts between human and other primate vocalizations. In: Perspectives on hwnan evolution, ed. Washburn, S. L & Dolhinov, P.. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Robinson, B. W. (1976) Limbic influences on human speech. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280:761–71. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Robinson, J. G. (1984) Syntactic structures in the vocalizations of wedge capped capuchin monkeys (Cebus nigrivittatus). Behaviour 90:46–79. [MDH]Google Scholar
Rogoff, B. (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. Oxford University Press. [BJ]Google Scholar
Roorda, J. (1969) Some statistical aspects of the buckling of imperfection sensitive structures. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 17:111–23. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Rose, S. A. (1990) Cross-modal transfer in human infants: What is being transferred? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 608:38–50. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Rumbaugh, D. M., ed. (1977) Language learning by a chimpanzee: The LANA project. Academic Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Sanides, F. (1975) Comparative neurology of the temporal lobe in primates including man with reference to speech. Brain and Language 2:396–419. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Sapir, E. (1921) Language. Harcourt Brace and World. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Sarnat, H. B. & Netsky, M. G. (1981) Evolution of the nervous system, 2d ed.Oxford University Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S. (1986) Ape language: From conditioned response to symbol. Columbia University Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Brakke, K., Hutchins, S. (1992) Linguistic development: Contrasts between co-reared Pan troglodytes and Pan paniscus. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Congress of Primatology, ed., Nishida, T.. University of Tokyo Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Murphy, J., Sevcik, R. A., Brakke, K. E., Williams, S. L. & Rumbaugh, D. M. (1993) Language comprehension in ape and child. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, vol. 58. University of Chicago Press. [aWKW, AM]Google Scholar
Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S. & Rumbaugh, D. (1993) The emergence of language. In: Tools, language and cognition in human evolution, ed. Gibson, K. R. & Ingold, T.. Cambridge University Press. [KRG]Google Scholar
Scheibel, A. B., Paul, L. A., Fried, I., Forsythe, A. B., Tomiyasu, U., Wechsler, A., Kao, A. & Slotnick, J. (1985) Dendritic organization of the anterior speech area. Experimental Neurology 87:109–17. [HJJ]Google Scholar
Schick, K. D. & Toth, N. (1993) Making silent stones speak: Human evolution and the dawn of technology. Simon and Schuster. [JS]Google Scholar
Schiller, F. (1979) Paul Broca. University of California Press. [WOD]Google Scholar
Schustennan, R. J. & Krieger, K. (1984) California sea lions are capable of semantic comprehension. Psychological Record 34:311–48. [JL]Google Scholar
Schustennan, R. J. (1986) Artificial language comprehension and size transposition by a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). Journal of Comparative Psychology 100:348–55. [JL]Google Scholar
Schwartz, J. & Tallal, P. (1980) Rate of acoustic change may underlie hemispheric specialization for speech perception. Science 207:1380–81. [RHF]Google Scholar
Seitz, R. J. & Roland, P. E. (1992) Learning of sequential finger movements in man: A combined kinetic positron emission tomography (PET) study. European Journal of Neuroscience 4:154–65. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Sepehr, M. M., Brown, J. V., Ettlinger, G. & Skreczek, W. (1988) The relationship between metaphorical and crossmodal abilities during development. International Journal of Neurosdence 38:53–67. [arWKW, RWM]Google Scholar
Sergent, J., Zuck, E., Terriah, S. & MacDonald, B. (1992) Distributed neural network underlying musical sight-reading and keyboard performance. Science 257:106–9. [SFW]Google Scholar
Shapiro, G. L. (1982) Sign acquisition in a home-reared/free-ranging orangutan: Comparison with other signing apes. American Journal of Primatology 3:121–129. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Shevoroshkin, V. (1990) The mother tongue. The Sciences 30(3):20–27. [MCC]Google Scholar
Singleton, J. L., Morford, J. P. & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1993) Once is not enough: Standards of well-formedness in manual communication created over three different timespans. Language 69:683–715. [rWKW, DB]Google Scholar
Smith, J. O. & Sidebottom, O. M. (1969) Elementary, mechanics of dcformable bodies. Macmillan. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Sober, E. (1984) The nature of selection. MIT Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Stringer, C. (1992) Homo habilis closely examined. Current Anthropology 33:338–40. [JL]Google Scholar
Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1990) This view of language. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:758–59. [WOD]Google Scholar
Stuss, D. T. & Benson, D. F. (1986) The frontal lobes. Raven. [PL]Google Scholar
Sutton, D., Larson, C. R. & Lindemann, R. C. (1974) Neocortical and limbic lesion effects on primate phonation. Brain Research 71:61–75. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Tallal, P., Miller, S. & Fitch, R. H. (1993) Neurobiological basis of speech: A case for the preeminence of temporal processing. In: Temporal information processing in the nervous system, with special reference to dyslexia and dysphasia, ed. Tallal, P., Galaburda, A. M., Llinas, R. & von Euler, C.. New York Academy of Sciences. [RHF, BJ]Google Scholar
Tallal, P. & Newcombe, F. (1978) Impairment of auditory perception and language comprehension in dysphasia. Brain and Language 5:13–24. [RHF]Google Scholar
Tallal, P. & Piercy, M. (1973) Developmental aphasia: Impaired rate of nonverbal processing as a function of sensory modality. Neuropsychologia 11:389–98. [RHF]Google Scholar
Tallal, P. & Schwartz, J. (1980) Temporal processing, speech perception and hemispheric asymmetry. Trends in Neurosciences 3:309–11. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Tallal, P., Stark, R., Kallman, C. & Mellits, D. (1981) A reexamination of some nonverbal perceptual abilities of language-impaired and normal children as a function of age and sensory modality. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 24:[351–57. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Talmy, L. (1975) Semantics and syntax of motion. In: Syntax and semantics, vol. 4, ed. Kimball, J.. Academic Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Talmy, L. (1976) Semantic causative types. In: Syntax and semantics, vol. 6, The grammar of causative constructions, ed., Shibatani, M.. Academic Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Talmy, L. (1980) Lexicalization patterns: Semantic structure in lexical form. In: Language typology and syntactic description, vol. 3, Grammatical categories and the lexicon. Cambridge University Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Tanenhaus, M. K. (1988) Psycholinguistics: An overview. In: Linguistics: The Cambridge survey, vol. 3, Language: Psychological and biological aspects, ed. Newmeyer, F. J.. Cambridge University Press. [rWKW, WOD]Google Scholar
Terrace, H. S. (1979) Nim. Academic Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Terrace, H. S. (1985) In the beginning was the “name.” American Psychologist 40:1011–28. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Tixier, J., ed. (1988) Technologic préhistorique (notes et monographics techniques 25). Paris: CNRS. [JS]Google Scholar
Tobias, P. V. (1975) Brain evolution in the hominoidea. In: Primate functional morphology and evolution, ed. Tuttle, R. H.. Mouton de Gruyter. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Tobias, P. V. (1981) The emergence of man in Africa and beyond. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 292:43–56. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Tobias, P. V. (1987) The brain of Homo habilis: A new level of organization in cerebral evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 16:741–61. [aWKW, RLH]Google Scholar
Tobias, P. V. (1991) Olduvai Gorge, vol. 4, The skulls, endocasts and teeth of Homo habilis. Cambridge University Press. [JL]Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C. & Ratner, H. H. (1993) Cultural learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16:495–552. [SFW]Google Scholar
Tomlin, R. (1986) Basic word order: Functional principles. Croom Helm. [FJN]Google Scholar
Toth, N. (1985) Archaeological evidence for preferential right-handedness in the lower and middle pleistocene, and its possible implications. Journal of Human Evolution 14:607–14. [aWKW, RLH, JS]Google Scholar
Toth, N. (1987) Behavioral inferences from early stone artifact assemblages: An experimental model. Journal of Human Evolution 16:763–87. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Toth, N. & Schick, K. D. (1993) Early stone industries. In: Tools, language and cognition in human evolution, ed. Gibson, K. R. & Ingold, T.. Cambridge University Press. [PL]Google Scholar
Toth, N., Sehick, K. D., Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Sevcik, R. A. & Rumbaugh, D. M. (1993) Pan the toolmaker: Investigations into the stone tool-making and tool-using capabilities of a bonobo (Pan paniscus). Journal of Archaeological Science 20:81–91. [rWKW, AM, JS]Google Scholar
Toulmin, S. (1971) Brain and language: A commentary. Synthèse 22:369–95. [WOD]Google Scholar
Tsvetkova, L. S. (1975) The naming process and its impairment. In: Foundations of language development, vol. 2, ed. Lenneberg, E. H. & Lenneberg, E.. Academic Press. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Ulbaek, I. (1992) Language origin: The role of animal cognition. In: Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Uylings, H. B. M. & van Eden, C. G. (1990) Qualitative and quantitative comparison of the prefrontal cortex in rats and in primates, including humans. Progress in Brain Research 85:31–62. [JS]Google Scholar
vonBonin, G. & Bailey, P. (1947) The neocortex of Macaca mulatto. University of Illinois Press. [rWKW]Google Scholar
vonBonin, G. & Bailey, P. (1961) Patterns of cerebral isocortex II. Primatologia 10:1–42. [arWKW]Google Scholar
Wagner, S., Winner, E., Cichetti, D. & Gardner, H. (1981) “Metaphorical” mapping in human infants. Child Development 52:728–31. [arWKW]Google Scholar
Wakefield, J. (1992) Mechanical effects in the evolution of limiting sulci. Unpublished manuscript, Arizona State University, Tempe. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Wakefield, J. (1993) On the origins of language: Neurolinguistic theory and hominid brain evolution. Master's thesis, Arizona State University, Tempe. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Walker, S. F. (1987) The evolution and dissolution of language. In: Progress in the psychology of langtiage, vol. 3, ed. Ellis, A.. Erlbaum. [SFW]Google Scholar
Walker, S. F. (1994) Animal communication. In: The encyclopedia of language and linguistics, vol. 4, ed. Asher, R. E. & Simpson, J. M. Y.. Pergamon. [SFW]Google Scholar
Walker, A. & Leakey, R., eds. (1993) The Nariokotome Homo erectus skeleton. Harvard University Press. [RLH]Google Scholar
Ward, J. P. & Hopkins, W. D., eds. (1993) Primate laterality. Springer-Verlag. [RWM]Google Scholar
Warden, C. J. & Warner, L. H. (1928) The sensory capacities and intelligence of dogs with a report on the ability of the noted dog “Fellow” to respond to verbal stimuli. Quarterly Review of Biology 3:1–28. [RWM]Google Scholar
Washburn, S. L. (1959) Speculations on the interrelations of the history of tools and biological evolution. In: The evolution of man's capacity for culture, ed. Spuhler, J. N.. Wayne State University Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Washburn, S. L. (1960) Tools and human evolution. Scientific American 203:63–75. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Welker, W. (1990) Why does the cerebral cortex fissure and fold? A review of determinants of gyri and sulci. In: Cerebral cortex, vol. 8B, Comparative structure and evolution of cerebral cortex, ed. Jones, E. G. & Peters, A.. Plenum Press. [aWKW, HJJ]Google Scholar
Wernicke, C. (1874) Der aphasische symptoviencomplex. Eine psychologische Studie auf anatomischer Basis. Cohn U. Weigert, Breslau. [EW]Google Scholar
Wernicke, C. (1903) Der aphasische Symptomencomplex. Der Deutsche Klinik 6:487–556. [EW]Google Scholar
Westergaard, C. G. (1994) Language, tools and neurobehavioral laterality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:360. [rWKW]Google Scholar
Whitaker, H. (1976) A case of the isolation of the language function. In: Studies in neurolinguistics, vol. 2, ed. Whitaker, H. & Whitaker, H. A.. Academic Press. [WOD]Google Scholar
White, E. (1989) Cortical circuits: Synaptic organization of the cerebral cortex, structure, function and theory. Birkhauser. [AM]Google Scholar
Wilkins, W. K. (1994) Lexical learning by error detection. Language Acquisition 3(2): 121–57. [arWKW]Google Scholar
Wind, J. (1992) Speech origin: A review. In: Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach, ed. Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A.. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B. & Nocentini, A., eds. (1992) Language origin: A multidisciplinary approach. Kluwer Academic. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Wind, J., Pulleyblank, E. G., deGrolier, E. & Bichakjian, B. H., eds. (1989) Studies in language origins.Benjamins. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Wood, B. (1991) Koobi Fora research project, vol. 4. Clarendon Press. [JL]Google Scholar
Woolsey, C. N. (1958) Organization of somatic sensory and motor areas of the neocortex. In: Biological and biochemical bases of behavior, ed. Harlow, H. F. & Woolsey, C. N.. University of Wiseonson Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Wynn, T. & McGrew, W. C. (1991) An ape's view of the Oldowan. Man 24:383–98. [rWKW, MCC]Google Scholar
Wynn, T. & McGrew, W. C. (1991) An ape's view of the Oldowan. In: The order primates, ed. Stevens, M. E. & Paterson, J. D.. Kendall/Hunt. [AM]Google Scholar
Yeni-Komshian, G. & Benson, D. (1975) Anatomical study of cerebral asymmetry in humans, chimpanzees and rhesus monkey. Science 192:287–89. [WOD]Google Scholar
Zentall, T. R. & Galef, B. G. Jr, (1988) Social learning. Erlbaum. [ACC]Google Scholar
Zilles, K., Armstrong, E., Moser, K. H., Schleicher, A. & Stephan, H. (1989) Gyrification in the cerebral cortex of primates. Brain Behavior and Evolution 34:143–50. [aWKW]Google Scholar
Zurif, E. B. & Caramazza, A. (1976) Psycholinguistic structures in aphasia: Studies in syntax and semantics. In: Studies in neurolinguistics, ed. Whitaker, H. & Whitaker, H. A.. Academic Press. [aWKW]Google Scholar