Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T23:22:45.592Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Bernsteinian physiology and computational modeling: East meets West at the “boundary”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Gary Goldberg
Affiliation:
Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 1A8
Hon C. Kwan
Affiliation:
Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 1A8

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Open Peer Commentary
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1985

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aizerman, M. A. & Andreeva, E. A. (1968) Simple search mechanism for control of skeletal muscles. Automation and Remote Control 29:452–63. [CCB]Google Scholar
Allum, J. H. J. (1983) Organization of stabilizing reflex responses in tibialis anterior museles following ankle flexion perturbatious of standing man. Brain Research 264:297301. [BWP]Google Scholar
Arbib, M. A. (1981) Perceptual structures and distributed motor control. In: Handbook of physiology, section 1: The nervous system, vol. 2. Motor control, ed. Brooks, V. B.. American Physiological Society. [GG]Google Scholar
Arnold, G. P. & Weihs, D. (1978) The hydrodynamics of rheotaxis in the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa L.) Journal of Experimental Biology 75:147–69. [WDC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arutyunyan, G. A., Gurfinkel, V. S. & Mirski, M. L. (1969) Organization of movements on execution by man of an exact postural task. Biofizika 14:1162–67. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Bekoff, A. (1981) Embryonic development of the neural circuitry underlying motor coordination. In: Studies in developmental neurobiology: Essays in honor of Viktor Hamburger, ed. Cowan, W. M.. Oxford University Press. [ET]Google Scholar
Bernstein, N. (1967) The co-ordination and regulation of movements. Pergamon Press. [LL, GG, taLMN, ET]Google Scholar
Boylls, C. C. (1976) A theory of cerebellar function with applications to locomotion. 2. The relation of anterior lobe climbing fiber function to locomotor behavior in the cat. Technical Report 76–1, Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. [CCB]Google Scholar
Boylls, C. C. & Greene, P. H. (1984) Bernstein's significance today. In: Human motor actions: Bernstein reassessed, ed. Whiting, H. T. A.. North-Holland. [CCB]Google Scholar
Brady, M., Hollerbach, J. M., Johnson, T. L. & Lozano-Pérez, T., eds. (1982) Robot motion: Planning and control. MIT Press. [PHG]Google Scholar
Brooks, V. B. (1979) Motor programs revisited. In: Posture and movement, ed. Talbot, R. E. & Humphrey, D. R.. Raven Press. [RAS]Google Scholar
Burke, R. E., Levine, D. N., Tsairis, P. & Zajac, F. E. III (1973) Physiological type and histochemical profiles in motor units of the cat gastroenemius. Journal of Physiology 234:723–48. [FEZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burrows, M. (1980) The control of sets of motoneuroncs by local interneurones in the locust. Journal of Physiology 298:213–33. [FD, taLMN]Google Scholar
Burrows, M. (1981) Local interneurones in insects. In: Neurones without impulses, ed. Roberts, A. & Bush, B. M. H.. Cambridge University Press. [FD]Google Scholar
Bussel, B., Katz, R., Pierrot-Deseilligny, E., Bergego, C. & Hayat, A. (1980) Vestibular and proprioceptive influences on the postural reactions to a sudden body displacement in man. In: Spinal and supraspinal mechanisms of voluntary motor control and locomotion, ed. Desmedt, J. E.. Kargel and Basel. [BWP]Google Scholar
Camana, P. C., (1977) A study of physiologically motivated mathematical models for human posture control. Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Clément, G., Gurfinkel, V. S., Lestienne, F., Lipshits, M. I. & Popov, K. E. (1983) A study of mechanisms of posture maintenance in the weightless state. Physiologist 26, no. 6, Suppl.:8689. [VSG]Google Scholar
Clément, G., Gurfinkel, V. S., Lestienne, F., Lipshits, M. I. & Popov, K. E. (1983) Ajustements posturaux associés à la mobilisation volontaire du bras en situation de microgravité. Comptes Rendus des Scéances de l'Académie des Sciences, 3rd series 296:789–92. [CCB]Google Scholar
Cohen, A. H., Holmes, P. J. & Rand, R. H. (1982) The nature of the coupling between segmental oseillators of the lamprey spinal generator for locomotion: A mathematical model. Journal of Mathematical Biology 13:345–69. [ES]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cools, A. R. (1980) Role of the neostriatal dopaminergic activity in sequencing and selecting behavioral strategies: Facilitating of processes involved in selecting the best strategy in a stressful situation. Behavioural and Brain Research 1:361–78. [GG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cordo, P. J. & Nashner, L. M. (1982) Properties of postural adjustments associated with rapid arm movements. Journal of Neurophysiology 47:287302. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Craik, K. J. W. (1943) The nature of explanation. Cambridge University Press. [GG]Google Scholar
Crowinshield, R. D. (1978) Use of optimization techniques to predict muscle forces. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 100:8892. [taLMN, BWP]Google Scholar
Dodge, R. (1923) Thresholds of rotation. Journal of Experimental Psychology 6:107–37. [CC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
EL-Dessouki, A. I. (1982) A hierarchical model for manipulator control systems. Doctoral dissertaion, Illinois Institute of Technology. [PHG]Google Scholar
El-Dessouki, A. I. & Greene, P. H. (1982) Parametric control of a manipulator. Abstracts, 1982 Computer Science Conference, Indianapolis. [PHG]Google Scholar
Fearing, R. S. (1984) Simplified grasping and manipulation dexterous robot hands. Proceedings of the American Control Conference, 06 6–8, San Diego. [JMH]Google Scholar
Feldman, A. G., & Latash, M. L. (1982) Interaction of afferent and efferent signals underlying joint position sense: Empirical and theoretical approachs. Journal of Motor Behavior 14: 74193. [rLMN]Google Scholar
Fogel, A. (1981) The ontogeny of gestural communication: The first six months. In: Language behavior in infancy and early childhood, ed. Stark, R. E.. Elsevier/North Holland. [ET]Google Scholar
Fomin, S. V. & Stillkind, T. I. (1973) On the dynamic equilibrium of the pedatar systems. In: Motor control, ed. Gydikov, A. A., Tankov, N. T. & Kosarov, D. S.. Plenum Press. [VSG]Google Scholar
Fourtner, C. R. (1976) Central nervous control of cockroach walking. In: Neural control of locomotion, ed. Herman, R. M., Grillner, S., Stein, P. S. G. & Stuart, D. G.. Plenum Press. [FD]Google Scholar
Gallistel, C. R. (1980) The organization of action: A new synthesis. Erlbaum. [RAS]Google Scholar
Ganor, I. & Golani, I. (1980) Coordination and integration in the hindleg step cycle of the rat: Kinematic synergies. Brain Research 195:5767. [PHG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gatev, V. (1972) Role of inhibition in the development of motor co-ordination in early childhood. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 14:336–41. [ET]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, J. J. (1966) The senses considered as perceptual systems. Houghton-Mifflin. [CC]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton-Mifflin. [CC, GG, taLMN]Google Scholar
Goldberg, G. (1984) Response and projection: A re-examination of the premotor concept. In: Neuropsychology of apraxia and related disorders, ed. Roy, E. E. (in press). Elsevier/North Holland. [GG]Google Scholar
Goldberger, M. E. (1969) The extrapyramidal systems of the spinal cord. 2. Results of combined pyramidal and extrapyramidal lesions in the macaque. Journal of Comparative Neurology 135:126. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Golliday, C. L. (1975) Toward development of biped locomotion controls: Planar motion control of the kneeless biped standing and walking gaits. Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Gordon, J. & Ghez, C. (1984) EMG patterns in antagonist muscles during isometric contraction in man: Relations to response dynamics. Experimental Brain Research 55:167–71. [GG]Google Scholar
Greene, P. H. (1964) New problems in adaptive control. In: Computer and information sciences, ed. Tou, J. T. & Wilcox, R. H.. Spartan Press. [PHG]Google Scholar
Greene, P. H. (1972) Problems of organization of motor systems. In: Progress in theoretical biology, vol. 2, ed. Rosen, R. & Snell, F.. Academic Press. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Greene, P. H. (1973) Coordination of effectors. Institute for Task Analysis Memorandum No. 15, Chicago. [PHG]Google Scholar
Greene, P. H. (1975) Strategies for heterarchical control: 1. A style for controlling complex systems; 2. Theoretical exploration of a style of control. Technical Reports 77–7 and 77–8, Computer Science Department, Illinois Institute of Technology. [PHG, taLMN]Google Scholar
Greene, P. H. (1982) Ideas about the representation of movements. Paper presented at the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity annual meeting. College Park, Md. [RAS]Google Scholar
Greene, P. H. (1982) Why is it easy to control your arms? Journal of Motor Behavior 14:260–86. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Gregory, R. L. (1969) On how so little information controls so much behavior. In: Towards a theoretical biology: 2. Sketches, ed. Waddington, C. H.. Edinburgh University Press. [GG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1968) Some nonlinear networks capable of learning a spatial pattern of arbitrary complexity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 59:368–72. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1969) On learning of spatiotemporal patterns by networks with ordered sensory and motor components; 1. Excitatory components of the cerebellum. Studies in Applied Mathematics 48:105–32. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1970) Some networks that can learn, remember, and reproduce any number of complicated space-time patterns, 2. Studies in Applied Mathematics 49:135–66. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1971) On the dynamics of operant conditioning. Journal of Theoretical Biology 33:225–55. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1978) A theory of human memory: Sell-organization of sensory-motor codes, maps, and plans. In: Progress in theoretical biology, vol. 5, ed. Rosen, R. & Snell, F.. Academic Press. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1982) Studies of mind and brain: Neural principles of learning, perception, development, cognition, and motor control. Reidel Press. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1983) The adaptive self-organization of serial order in behavior: Speech, language, and motor control. In: Perception of speech and visual form: Theoretical issues, models, and research, ed. Schwab, E. C. & Nusbaum, H. C.. Academic Press. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1984) The adaptive self-organization of serial order in behavior: Speech, language, and motor control. In: Perception of speech and visual form: Theoretical issues, models, and research, ed. Schwab, E. C. & Nusbaum, H. C.. Academic Press. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. & Kuperstein, M. (1985a) Adaptive neural dynamics of ballistic eye movements. Elsevier North Holland. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. & Kuperstein, M. (1985b) Adaptive neural dynamics of the saccadic eye movement system and general principles of sensory-motor control. Submitted. [SG]Google Scholar
Gurfinkel, V. S., Kots, Y. M., Pal'tsev, E. I. & Feldman, A. G. (1971) The compensation of respiratory disturbances of the erect posture of man as an example of the organization of interarticular interaction. In: Models of the structural—functional organization of certain biological systems, ed. Gelfand, I. M., Gurfinkel, V. S., Fomin, S. V. & Tsetlin, M. L.. MIT Press (first pub. 1966). [CCB, tarLMN]Google Scholar
Gurfinkel, V. S., Kots, Y. M. & Shik, M. L. (1965) Regulation of human posture. Moscow: Nauka. [CCB]Google Scholar
Gurfinkel, V. S. & Levik, Y. S. (1979) Sensory complexes and sensomotor integration. Human Physiology 5:269–81. [CCB]Google Scholar
Gurfinkel, V. S., Lipshits, S., Mori, S. & Popov, K. E. (1981) Stabilization of body position as the main task of postural regulation. Human Physiology 7:155–65. [CCB]Google Scholar
Guthrie, B. L., Porter, J. D., & Sparks, D. L. (1983) Corollary discharge provides accurate eye position information to the oculomotor system. Science 221:1193–95. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haken, H. (1975) Cooperative phenomena in systems far from thermal equilibrium and in nonphysical systems. Review of Modern Physics 47:67121. [ES].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haken, H. (1977) Synergetics: An introduction. Springer Verlag. [ES]Google Scholar
Haken, H. (1983) Advanced synergetics: Instability hierarchies of self-organizing systems and devices. Springer-Verlag. [ES]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallett, P. E. & Lightstone, A. D. (1976) Saccadic eye movements to flashed targets. Vision Research 16:107114. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammond, P. H. (1956) The influence of prior instruction to the subject on an apparently involuntary neuro-muscular response. Journal of Physiology 132:1718. [RAS]Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1949) The organization of behavior. Wiley. [SG]Google Scholar
Hemami, H. (1978) Reduced order models for biped locomotion. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 8:321–25. [CCB]Google Scholar
Hofsten, C. von (1979) Development of visually directed reaching: The approach phase. Journal of Human Movement Studies 5:160–78. [ET]Google Scholar
Hofsten, C. von (1984) Developmental changes in the organization of prereaching movements. Developmental Psychology 20:378–88. [ET]Google Scholar
Hogan, N. (1982) Mechanical impedance control in assistive devices and manipulators. In: Robot motion: Planning and control, ed. Brady, et al. (reprinted from Proceedings of the 1980 Joint Automatic Control Conference, San Francisco). MIT Press. [PHG]Google Scholar
Hogan, N. (in press a) An organising principle for a class of voluntary movements. Journal of Neuroscience. [ET]Google Scholar
Hogan, N. (in press b) Adaptive control of mechanical impedance by coactivation of antagonist muscles. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. AC-29: No. 7. [ET]Google Scholar
Hollerbach, J. M. & Atkeson, C. G. (1983) Kinematic features of unrestrained vertical arm movements. Society for Neuroscicnce Abstracts 9:1034. [JMH]Google Scholar
Hollerbach, J. J. & Flash, T. (1982) Dynamic interactions between limb segments during planar arm movement. Biological Cybernetics 44:6777. [GG, FEZ]Google Scholar
Horak, F. B. & Nashner, L. M. (1983) Two distinct strategies for stance posture control: Adaptation to altered support surface configurations. Society for Neuroscicnce Abstracts 9. [GG, taLMN]Google Scholar
Horak, F. B., Nashner, L. M. & Nutt, J. G. (1984) Postural instability in Parkinson's disease: Motor coordination and snesory organization. Society for Neuroscicnce Abstracts 10:634. [rLMN]Google Scholar
Hunter, I. W. & Kearney, R. R. (1982) Dynamics of human ankle stiffness:Variation with mean ankle torque. Journal of Biomechanics 15:747–52. [REK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jerard, R. B. & Jacobsen, S. C. (1980) Laboratory evaluation of a unified theory for simultaneous multiple axis artificial arm control. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 102:199207. [ES]Google Scholar
Kearney, R. E. & Hunter, I. W. (1983) System identification of human trieeps surae stretch reflex dynamics. Experimental Brain Research 51:117127. [REK BWP]Google Scholar
Kelso, J. A. S. (1984) Phase transitions and critical behavior in human bimanual coordination. American Journal of Physiology 246 (Regulatory, Integrative, and Comparative 15):R1000–R1004. [ES]Google Scholar
Kelso, J. A. S. & Saltzman, E. L. (1982) Motor control: Which themes do we orchestrate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:554–57. [ES]Google Scholar
Kelso, J. A. S. & Tuller, B. (1983/1984) A dynamical basis for action systems. Haskins Laboratories Status Report on Speech Research (1983) SR-73:177216. Also in: Handbook of cognitive neuroscience (1984), ed. Gazzaniga, M. S.. Plenum Press. [ES]Google Scholar
Kodde, L., Caberg, H. B., Mol, J. M. F. & Massen, C. H. (1982) An application of mathematical models in posturography. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 4:4448. [REK]Google Scholar
Kots, Y. M. & Syrovegin, A. V. (1966) Fixed set of variants of interaction of the muscles of two joints used in the execution of simple voluntary movements. Biophysics 11:1212–19. [CCB]Google Scholar
Kugler, P. N., Kelso, J. A. S. & Turvey, M. T. (1980) On the concept of coordinative structures as dissipative structures: 1. Theoretical lines of convergence. In: Tutorials in motor behavior, ed. Stelmach, G. E. & Requin, J.. Elsevier North Holland. [ES]Google Scholar
Kugler, P. N., Kelso, J. A. S. (1982) On the control and coordination of naturally developing systems. In: The development of movement control and coordination, ed. Kelso, J. A. S. & Clark, J. E.. John Wiley. [ES]Google Scholar
Kugler, P. N. & Turvey, M. T. (in press) Information, natural law, and the self-assembly of rhythmic movement. Erlbaum. [CC]Google Scholar
Lacquauiti, F. & Soechting, J. F. (1984) Behavior of the stretch reflex in a multi-jointed limb. Brain Research. In press. [JMH]Google Scholar
Lackner, J. R. (1977) Induction of nystagumus in stationary subjects with a rotating sound field. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine 48:129–31. [CC]Google Scholar
Lee, D. N. (1978) The functions of vision. In: Modes of perceiving and processing information, ed. Pick, H. L. Jr & Saltzman, E.. Erlbaum. [CC]Google Scholar
Lee, D. N. (1980) Visuo-motor coordination in space-time. In: Tutorials in motor behavior, ed. Stelmach, G. E. & Requin, J., North-Holland. [CC, GG]Google Scholar
Lee, W. A. (1984) Neuromotor synergies as a basis for coordinating intentional action. Journal of Motor Behavior 16:135–70. [GG, ES]Google Scholar
Levine, W. S., Zajac, F. E., Belzer, M. R. & Zomlefer, M. R. (1983) Ankle controls that produce a maximal vertical jump when other joints are locked. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control AC-28:1008–16. [CCB, FEZ]Google Scholar
Lipshits, M. I., Mauritz, K. H. & Popov, K. E. (1981) Quantitative analysis of anticipatory postural components of a complex voluntary movement. Human Physiology. Trans. by Plenum Publishing Corporation from Fiziologiya Cheloveka 7:411–19. [VSG]Google Scholar
Litvintsev, A. I. (1972) Vertical posture control mechanisms in man. Automation and Remote Control. 33:590600. [CCB, ES]Google Scholar
Litvintsev, A. I. (1973) Mechanisms of man's vertical posture control. Agressologic 14:1721. [CCB]Google ScholarPubMed
Llinás, R. (1984) Tre sosismi della neurobiologia. In: Livelli di realta. ed. Piatelli-Palmarini, M.. Milan: Seltrinelli. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Llinás, R. & Pellionisz, A. (1984) La mente in cuanto proprieta tensoriale dei circuiti cerebrali. In: Livelli di realta, ed. Piatelli-Palmarini, M.. Milan: Seltrinelli. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Llinás, R. (1981) Electrophysiology of the cerebellar networks. In: Handbook of physiology, section 1: The nervous system, ed. Brookhart, J. & Mounteastle, V.. American Physiological Society. [taLMN]Google Scholar
MacKay, D. M. (1966) Cerebral organization and the conscious control of action. In: Brain and Conscious Experience ed. Eccles, J. C.. Springer-Verlag. [GG]Google Scholar
Mackay, W. A. & Murphy, J. T. (1979) Cerebellar modulation of reflex gain. Progress in Neurobiology 13:361417. [GG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mason, M. (1982) Compliance. In: Robot motion: Planning and control, ed. Brady, et al. MIT Press. [PHG]Google Scholar
Mays, L. E. & Sparks, D. L. (1980) Saccades are spatially, not retinocentrically, coded. Science 208:1163–65. [SG]Google Scholar
McCollum, G., Horak, F. B. & Nashner, L. M. (in press) Parsimony in neural calculations for postural movements. In: Cerebellar functions, ed. Bloedel, J., Dichgans, J. & Precht, W.. Springer Verlag. [tarLMN]Google Scholar
McGhee, R. B. (1976) Robot locomotion. In: Seural control of locomotion.ed. Herman, R. M., Grillner, S., Stein, P. S. G. & Stuart, D. G., Advances in Behavioral Biology, vol. 18. Plenum Press. [CCB]Google Scholar
Merton, P. A. (1972) How we control the contraction of our muscles. Scientific American 226:3037. [RAS]Google Scholar
Mounoud, P. & Vinter, A. (1981) Representation and sensorimotor development. In: Infancy and epistemology: An evaluation of Piaget's theory, ed. Butterworth, G.. Harvester Press. [ET]Google Scholar
Murphy, J. T., Kwan, H. C., MacKay, W. A. & Wong, Y. C. (1978) Spatial organization of precentral cortex in awake primates: 3. Input–output coupling. Journal of Neurophysiology 41:1132–39. [GG]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M. (1971) A model describing vestibular detection of body sway motion. Acta Oto-Laryngologica 72:429–36. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M. (1976) Adapting reflexes controlling the human posture. Experimental Brain Research 26:5972. [tarLMN, BWP]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M. (1977) Fixed patterns of rapid postural responses among leg muscles during stance. Experimental Brain Research 30:1324. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M. (1982) Adaptation of human movement to altered environments. Trends in Neuroscience 5:358–61. [taLMN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nashner, L. M. & Black, F. O. (1983) Effect of abnormal vestibular–visual interactions upon posture control in two different types of deficit patients. Society for Neurosciencc Abstracts 9. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M. & Black, F. O. (1984) Sensory unification in human posture control. Submitted. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M., Black, F. O. & Wall, C. III (1982) Adaptation to altered support and visual conditions during stance: Patients with vestibular deficits. Journal of Neurosciencc 2:536–44. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M. & Forssberg, H. (1985) The phase dependent organization of postural adjustments associated with arm movements while walking. Journal of Neurophysiology. In press. [tarLMN]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M., Shumway, A. & Marin, O. (1983) Stance posture control in selected groups of children with cerebral palsy: Deficits in sensory integration and muscular coordination. Experimental Brain Research 49:393409. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M. & Woollacott, M. (1979) The organization of rapid postural adjustments of standing humans: An experimental—conceptual model. In: Posture and movement, ed. Talbott, R. E. & Humphrey, D. R.. Raven Press. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Nashner, L. M., Woollacott, M. & Tuma, G. (1979) Organization of rapid responses to postural and locomotor-like perturbations of standing man. Experimental Brain Research 36:463–76. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Nelson, W. L. (1983) Physical principles for economies of skilled movements. Biological Cybernetics 46:135–47. [ET]Google Scholar
Oster, H. (1978) Facial expression and affect development. In: The development of affect, ed. Lewis, M. & Rosenblum, L. A.. Plenum Press. [ET]Google Scholar
Pearson, K. G. (1976) Nerve cells without action potentials. In: Simpler networks and behavior, ed. Fentress, J. C.. Sinauer Associates. [FD]Google Scholar
Pearson, K. G. & Fourtner, C. R. (1975) Nonspiking interneurons in walking system of the cockroach. Journal of Neurophysiology 38:3352. [FD]Google Scholar
Pedotti, A., Krishnan, V. V. & Stark, L. (1978) Optimization of muscle force sequencing in human locomotion. Mathematical Biosciences 38:5776. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Pellionisz, A. & Llinás, R. (1979) Brain modeling by tensor network theory and computer simulation. The cerebellum: Distributed processor for predictive coordination. Neuroscience 4:323–48. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Pellionisz, A. & Llinás, R. (1980) Tensorial approach to the geometry of brain function: Cerebellar coordination via a metric tensor. Neuroscience 5:1125–36. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Peterson, B. W. & Goldberg, J. (1982). Role of vestibular and neck reflexes in controlling eye and head position. In: Physiological and pathological aspects of eye movement, ed. Roucoux, A. & Crommelinck, M.. Junk Pub. [BNP]Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1963) The origins of intelligence in children. Norton. [SG]Google Scholar
Polit, A. & Bizzi, E. (1979) Characteristics of motor programs underlying arm movements in monkeys. Journal of Neurophysiology 42:183–94. [SG]Google Scholar
Popov, K. E., Gurfinkel, V. S. & Lipshits, M. I. (1981) Effects of foot—ground interaction on vibratory induced reflex responses of the leg muscles. Human Physiology, trans. Plenum Publishing Corporation from Fiziologiya Cheloveka 7:716–23. [VSG]Google Scholar
Prigogine, I. (1980) From being to becoming: Time and complexity in the physical sciences. W. H. Freeman & Co. [ES]Google Scholar
Raibert, M. R., Brown, H. B Jr & Chepponis, M. (1984) Experiments in balance with a 3D one-legged hopping machine. International Journal of Robotics Research 3(2):7592. [JMH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, E. S. (1982) An outline for a theory of action systems. Journal of Motor Behavior 14:98134. [GG]Google Scholar
Roberts, T. D. M. (1967) Neurophysiology of postural mechanisms. Plenum Press. [WDC]Google Scholar
Roberts, T. D. M. (1971) Standing with a bent knee. Nature 230:499501. [TDMR]Google Scholar
Roberts, T. D. M. (1978) Neurophysiology of postural mechanisms, 2d ed.Butterworth. [REK, TDMR]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. A. (1982) The use of matrices in analyzing the three-dimensional behavior of the vestibnlo-ocular reflex. Biological Cybernetics 46:5366. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Rosen, I. & Asanuma, H. (1972) Peripheral afferent inputs to the forelimb area of the monkey motor cortez: Input—ontput relations. Experimental Brain Research 14:257–73. [GG]Google Scholar
Rnneson, S. & Frykholm, G. (1983) Kinematic specification of dynamics as an informational basis for person-and-action perception: Expectation, gender recognition, and deceptive intention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 112:585615. [CC]Google Scholar
Saltzman, E. (1979) Levels of sensorimotor representation. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 20:91163. [ES]Google Scholar
Saltzman, E. & Kelso, J. A. S. (1984) Skilled actions: A task dynamic approach. Haskins Laboratories Status Report on Speech Research SR-76:350. [ES, ET]Google Scholar
Sasaki, K. & Gemba, H. (1982) Development and change of cortical field potentials during learning processes of visually initiated hand movements in the monkey. Experimental Brain Research 48:429–37. [GG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schell, G. R. & Strick, P. L. (1984) The origin of thalamic inputs to the areuate premotor and supplementary motor areas. Journal of Neuroscience 4:539–60. [GG]Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. A. (1982) Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis. Human Kinetics Press. [RAS]Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. A. (in press) Models of rapid movement control. In: Motor memory and control ed. Russell, D. G.University of Otago. [RAS]Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. A., Sherwood, D. E. & Walter, C. B. (1984) In preparation. University of California, Los Angeles. [RAS]Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. A., Sherwood, D. E., Zelaznik, H. N. & Leikind, B. (in press) Speed-accuracy trade-offs in motor behavior: Theories of impulse variability. In: Motor behavior: Programming, control, and acquisition, ed. Hener, H., Kleinbeck, U. & Schmidt, K. H.. Springer-Verlag. [RAS]Google Scholar
Shapiro, D. C. (1977) A preliminary attempt to determine the duration of a motor program. In: Psychology of motor behavior and sport, vol. 1, ed. Landers, D. M. & Christina, R. W.. Human Kinetics Press. [RAS]Google Scholar
Shapiro, D. C. & Schmidt, R. A. (1983) The control of direction in rapid aiming movements. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 9(2):1031. [RAS]Google Scholar
Shapiro, D. C. & Walter, C. B. (1984) The control of rapid positioning movements with spatiotemporal constraints. In preparation, University of California, Los Angeles. [RAS]Google Scholar
Shapiro, D. C., Zernicke, R. F., Gregor, R. J. & Diestal, J. D. (1981) Evidence for generalized motor programs using gait-pattern analysis. Journal of Motor Behavior 13:3347. [RAS]Google Scholar
Shepherd, G. M. (1981) Introduction: The nerve impulse and the nature of nervous function. In: Neurones without impulses, ed. Roberts, A. & Bush, B. M. H.. Cambridge University Press. [FD]Google Scholar
Sheppard, J. J. & Mysak, E. D. (1984) Ontogeny of infantile oral reflexes and emerging chewing. Child Development 55:831–43. [ET]Google Scholar
Siegler, M. V. S. (1981a) Posture and history of movement determine membrane potential and synaptic events in nonspiking interneurons and motor neurons of the locust. Journal of Neurophysiology 46:296309. [FD]Google Scholar
Siegler, M. V. S. (1981b) Postural changes alter synaptic interactions between nonspiking interneurons and motor neurons of the locust. Journal of Neurophysiology 46:310–23. [FD]Google Scholar
Siegler, M. V. S. & Burrows, M. (1980) Nonspiking interneurones and local circuits. Trends in Neuroscience 3:7377. [taLMN]Google Scholar
Smith, A. M. (1981) The coactivation of antagonist muscles. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 59:733–47. [ET]Google Scholar
Sokolov, E. N. (1969) The modeling properties of the nervous system. In: A handbook of contemporary soviet psychology, ed. Cole, M. & Maltzman, I.. Basic Books. [GG]Google Scholar
Song, S. M.Vohnout, V. J., Waldron, K. J. & Kinzel, G. L. (1984) Computer-aided design of a leg for an energy-efficient walking machine. Mechanism and Machine Theory 19:1724. [PHG]Google Scholar
Stein, R. B. (1982) What muscle variable(s) does the nervous system control in limb movements? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:535–77. [ET]Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. H., Olshen, R., Cooper, L. & Woo, S. L.-Y. (1980) The development of mature gait. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 62:336–53. [ET]Google Scholar
Thelen, E. (in press) Developmental origins of motor coordination: Leg movements in human infants. Developmental Psychobiology. [ET]Google Scholar
Thelen, E. & Fisher, D. M. (1983a) From spontaneous to instrumental behavior: Kinematic analysis of movement changes during very early learning. Child Development 54:29140. [ET]Google Scholar
Thelen, E. & Fisher, D. M. (1983b) The organization of spontaneous leg movements in newborn infants. Journal of Motor Behavior 15:353–77. [ET]Google Scholar
Thelen, E. & Whitley, D. L. (in preparation) Continuity and change: Kinematic and electromyographic comparisons between newborn stepping and later locomotion. [ET]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1977) Towards a theory of action with reference to vision. In: Perceiving, acting and knowing: Towards an ecological psychology, ed. Shaw, R. & Bransford, J.. Erlbaum. [GG]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T., Shaw, R. E., Reed, E. S. & Mace, W. M. (1981) Ecological laws of perceiving and acting: In reply to Fodor and Pylyshyn (1981). Cognition 9:237304. [CC]Google Scholar
von Hoist, E. (1973) Relative coordination as a phenomenon and as a method of analysis of central nervous functions (1939). In: The behavioral physiology of animals and man: The collected papers of Erich von Holst, vol. I, trans. Martin, R.. University of Miami Press. [ES]Google Scholar
Waddington, C. H, (1940) The strategy of the genes. Allen & Unwin. [RT]Google Scholar
Waldron, K. L. & Kinzel, G. L. (1982) The relationship between actuator geometry and mechanical efficiency in robots. In: Theory and practice of robots and manipulators, ed. Morecki, A. & Kedzion, K.. Warsaw P. W. N. [Polish Scientific Publishers]. [PHG]Google Scholar
Watt, D. G. D. (1981). Effects of vertical linear acceleration on H-reflex in decerebrate cat: 1. Transient stimuli. Journal of Neurophysiology 45:614–55. [BWP]Google Scholar
Weiss, P. (1941) Self-differentation of the basic patterns of coordination. Comparative Psychology Monographs 17 (No. 4). [RAS]Google Scholar
Weiss, P. L.Kearney, R. E. & Hunter, I. W. (1984) Position dependence of ankle joint dynamics: Passive mechanics. Digest of 10th Canadian Medical and Biological Engineering Conference 10:1920. [REK]Google Scholar
Wereley, N., Cuitton, D., Kern Keamey, R. E. & Peterson, B. W. (1983) Visual, vestibular and voluntary contributions to human head stabilization. Seuroscienee Abstract 9:67. [BWP]Google Scholar
Whiting, H. T. A. (1984) Bernstein re-assessed: Human motor actions. Elsevier/North Holland. [GG]Google Scholar
Wonham, W. M. (1984) Regulation, feedback and internal models. In: Adaptive control of ill-defined systems, ed. Selfridge, O. G., Rissland, E. L. & Arbib, M. A.. Plenum Press. [GG]Google Scholar
Yates, F. E. (1982) Outline of a physical theory of physiological systems. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 60:217–48. [ES]Google Scholar
Yates, F. E. & Iberall, A. S. (1973) Temporal and hierarchical organization in biosystems. In: Temporal aspects of therapeutics, ed. Urquart, J. & Yates, F. E.. Plenum Press. [ES]Google Scholar