Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T00:50:35.279Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The propositional nature of human associative learning

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 April 2009

Chris J. Mitchell ,
Jan De Houwer  and
Peter F. Lovibond
Chris J. Mitchell
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2052, [email protected]://www.psy.unsw.edu.au/profiles/cmitchell.html
Jan De Houwer
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, B-9000 Ghent, [email protected]://users.ugent.be/~jdhouwer/">
Peter F. Lovibond
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2052, [email protected]://www.psy.unsw.edu.au/profiles/plovibond.html">
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The past 50 years have seen an accumulation of evidence suggesting that associative learning depends on high-level cognitive processes that give rise to propositional knowledge. Yet, many learning theorists maintain a belief in a learning mechanism in which links between mental representations are formed automatically. We characterize and highlight the differences between the propositional and link approaches, and review the relevant empirical evidence. We conclude that learning is the consequence of propositional reasoning processes that cooperate with the unconscious processes involved in memory retrieval and perception. We argue that this new conceptual framework allows many of the important recent advances in associative learning research to be retained, but recast in a model that provides a firmer foundation for both immediate application and future research.

Keywords

associationassociative linkautomaticawarenessconditioningcontrolleddual-systemhuman associative learningpropositional
Type
Main Articles
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 32 , Issue 2 , April 2009 , pp. 183 - 198
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, C. D. & Dickinson, A. (1981) Instrumental responding following reinforcer devaluation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Comparative and Physiological Psychology 33B:109–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baeyens, F., Eelen, P. & Van, denBergh, O. (1990a) Contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning: A case for unaware affective-evaluative learning. Cognition and Emotion 4:3–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batsell, W. R., Paschall, G. Y., Gleason, D. I. & Batson, J. D. (2001) Taste preconditioning augments odor-aversion learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 27:30–47.Google ScholarPubMed
Beckers, T., De Houwer, J., Pineno, O., & Miller, R. R. (2005) Outcome additivity and outcome maximality influence cue competition in human causal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 31:238–49.Google ScholarPubMed
Beckers, T., Miller, R. R., De Houwer, J., & Urushihara, K. (2006) Reasoning rats: Forward blocking in Pavlovian animal conditioning is sensitive to constraints of causal inference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 135:92–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blaisdell, A., Sawa, K., Leising, K. J. & Waldmann, M. R. (2006) Causal reasoning in rats. Science 311:1020–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boakes, R. A. (1989) How one might find evidence for conditioning in adult humans. In: Aversion, avoidance and anxiety: Perspectives on learning and memory, ed. Archer, T. & Nilsson, L.-G., pp. 381–402. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bolles, R. C. & Fanselow, M. S. (1980) A perceptual-recuperative model of fear and pain. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:291–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouton, M. E. (1993) Context, time, and memory retrieval in the interference paradigms of Pavlovian learning. Psychological Bulletin 114:80–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braine, M. D. S. (1978) On the relation between the natural logic of reasoning and standard logic. Psychological Review 85:1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, W. F. (1974) There is no convincing evidence for operant or classical conditioning in adult humans. In: Cognition and the symbolic processes, ed. Weimer, W. B. & Palermo, D. S., pp. 1–42. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Chater, , (in press) Rational and mechanistic perspectives on reinforcement learning. Cognition.Google Scholar
Chater, N., Tenenbaum, J. B. & Yuille, A. (2006) Probabilistic models of cognition: Conceptual foundations. Trends in Cognitive Science 10:287–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheng, P. W. (1997) From covariation to causation: A causal power theory. Psychological Review 104:367–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, D. M. (2004) Developing new treatments: On the interplay between theories, experimental science and clinical innovation. Behavior Research and Therapy 42:1089–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clayton, N. S. & Dickinson, A. (1998) Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature 395:272–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colgan, D. M. (1970) Effect of instructions on the skin conductance response. Journal of Experimental Psychology 86:108–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, S. W. & Harris, R. E. (1937) The verbal conditioning of the galvanic skin reflex. Journal of Experimental Psychology 21:202–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, M. E. (1970) Cognition and conditioning: Effects of masking the CS-UCS contingency on human GSR classical conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 85:389–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawson, M. E. & Biferno, M. A. (1973) Concurrent measurement of awareness and electrodermal classical conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 101:55–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawson, M. E. & Schell, A. M. (1985) Information processing and human autonomic classical conditioning. In: Advances in psychophysiology, vol. 1, ed. Ackles, P. K., Jennings, J. R. & Coles, M. G. H., pp. 89–165. JAI Press.Google Scholar
Dawson, M. E. & Schell, A. M. (1987) Human autonomic and skeletal classical conditioning: The role of conscious cognitive factors. In: Cognitive processes and Pavlovian conditioning in humans, ed. Davey, G., pp. 27–55. Wiley.Google Scholar
De Houwer, J., (2007) A conceptual and theoretical analysis of evaluative conditioning. The Spanish Journal of Psychology 10:230–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Houwer, J., (2009) The propositional approach to associative learning as an alternative for association formation models. Learning and Behavior 37:1–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Houwer, J., & Beckers, T. (2003) Secondary task difficulty modulates forward blocking in human contingency learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 56B:345–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Houwer, J., Beckers, T., & Glautier, S. (2002) Outcome and cue properties modulate blocking. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 55A:965–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Houwer, J., Thomas, S., & Baeyens, F. (2001) Associative learning of likes and dislikes: A review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning. Psychological Bulletin 127:853–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Houwer, J., Vandorpe, S., & Beckers, T. (2005) On the role of controlled cognitive processes in human associative learning. In: New directions in human associative learning, ed. Wills, A. J., pp. 41–63. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
De Houwer, J., Vandorpe, S., & Beckers, T. (2007) Statistical contingency has a different impact on preparation judgements than on causal judgements. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60:418–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, A. (1980) Contemporary animal learning theory. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dickinson, A. (1989) Expectancy theory in animal conditioning. In: Contemporary learning theories: Pavlovian conditioning and the status of traditional learning theory, ed. Klein, S. B. & Mowrer, R. R., pp. 279–308. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Dickinson, A. (2001) Causal learning: An associative analysis. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 54B:3–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, A. & Brown, K. J. (2007) Flavor evaluative conditioning is unaffected by contingency knowledge during training with color–flavor compounds. Learning and Behavior 35:36–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickinson, A., Shanks, D. & Evenden, J. (1984) Judgment of act-outcome contingency: The role of selective attribution. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 36A:29–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, J. C. & Kirsner, K. (1988) Discovering functionally independent mental processes: The principle of reversed association. Psychological Review 95:91–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Durlach, P. D. & Rescorla, R. A. (1980) Potentiation rather than overshadowing in flavor aversion learning: An analysis in terms of within-compound associations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 6:175–87.Google ScholarPubMed
Epstein, S. & Roupenian, A. (1970) Heart rate and skin conductance during experimentally induced anxiety: The effect of uncertainty about receiving noxious stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16:20–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, J. St. B. T. (2003) In two minds: Dual process accounts of reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7:454–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, J. St. B. T. (2008) Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology 59(1):255–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, J. St. B. T. & Over, D. E. (1996) Rationality and reasoning. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (2003) Hume variations. Oxford University Press/Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Fulcher, E. P. & Hammerl, M. (2001) When all is revealed: A dissociation between evaluative learning and contingency awareness. Consciousness and Cognition 10:524–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia, J., Brett, L. P. & Rusiniak, K. W. (1989) Limits of Darwinian conditioning. In: Contemporary learning theories: Instrumental conditioning and the impact of biological constraints on learning, ed. Klein, S. B. & Mowrer, R. R., pp. 181–203. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1985) The mind's new science: A history of the cognitive revolution. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gigerenzer, G. & Hoffrage, U. (1995) How to improve Bayesian reasoning without instruction: Frequency formats. Psychological Review 102:684–704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henson, R. (2006) Forward inference using functional neuroimaging: Dissociations versus associations. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10:64–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hintzman, D. L. (1986) Schema abstraction in a multiple-trace memory model. Psychological Review 93:411–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holland, P. C. (1990) Event representation in Pavlovian conditioning: Image and action. Cognition 37:105–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jog, M. S., Kubota, Y., Connolly, C. I., Hillegaart, V. & Graybiel, A. M. (1999) Building neural representations of habits. Science 286:1745–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983) Mental models. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kahneman, D. & Frederick, S. (2002) Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment. In: Heuristics and biases, ed. Gilovich, T. D., Griffin, D. W. & Kahneman, D., pp. 49–81. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamin, L. J. (1969) Predictability, surprise attention and conditioning. In: Punishment and aversive behaviour, ed. Campbell, B. A. & Church, R. M., pp. 279–96. Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Karazinov, D. M. & Boakes, R. A. (2007) Second order conditioning in human predictive judgments when there is little time to think. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60:448–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katkin, E. S., Wiens, S. & Öhman, A. (2001) Nonconscious fear conditioning, visceral perception, and the development of gut feelings. Psychological Science 12:366–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kruschke, J. K. (2006) Locally Bayesian learning with applications to retrospective revaluation and highlighting. Psychological Review 113:677–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lagnado, D. A. & Shanks, D. R. (2002) Probability judgment in hierarchical learning: A conflict between predictiveness and coherence. Cognition 83:81–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lagnado, D. A., Waldmann, M. R., Hagmayer, Y. & Sloman, S. A. (2007) Beyond covariation: Cues to causal structure. In: Causal learning: Psychology, philosophy, and computation, ed. Gopnik, A. & Schulz, L., pp. 154–72. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larkin, M. J., Aitken, M. R. & Dickinson, A. (1998) Retrospective revaluation of causal judgments under positive and negative contingencies. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 24:1331–52.Google Scholar
Le Doux, J. E.. (2000) Emotion circuits in the brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience 23:155–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Le Pelley, M. E., Oakeshott, S. M. & McLaren, I. P. L. (2005a) Blocking and unblocking in human causal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 31:56–70.Google ScholarPubMed
López, F. J., Cobos, P. L. & Caño, A. (2005) Associative and causal reasoning accounts of causal induction: Symmetries and asymmetries in predictive and diagnostic inferences. Memory and Cognition 33:1388–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
López, F. J., Cobos, P. L., Caño, A. & Shanks, D. R. (1998a) The rational analysis of human causal and probability judgment. In: Rational models of cognition, ed. Oaksford, M. & Chater, N., pp. 314–52. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lovibond, P. F. (1993) Conditioning and cognitive-behavior therapy. Behavior Change 10:119–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovibond, P. F. (2003) Causal beliefs and conditioned responses: Retrospective revaluation induced by experience and by instruction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 29:97–106.Google ScholarPubMed
Lovibond, P. F., Been, S. L., Mitchell, C. J., Bouton, M. E. & Frohardt, R. (2003) Forward and backward blocking of causal judgment is enhanced by additivity of effect magnitude. Memory and Cognition 31:133–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Lovibond, P. F. & Shanks, D. R. (2002) The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 28:3–26.Google ScholarPubMed
MacCorquodale, K. & Meehl, P. E. (1954) Edward C. Tolman. In: Modern learning theory, ed. Estes, W. K., Koch, S., MacCorquodale, K., Meehl, P. E., Mueller, C. G. Jr.Schoenfeld, W. N. & Verplanck, W. S., pp. 177–266. Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (1974) The psychology of animal learning. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (1975) A theory of attention: Variations in the associability of stimuli with reinforcement. Psychological Review 82(4):276–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marr, D. (1982) Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. Freeman.Google Scholar
McLaren, I. P. L., Green, R. E. A. & Mackintosh, N. J. (1994) Animal learning and the implicit/explicit distinction. In: Implicit and explicit learning of languages, ed. Ellis, N. C., pp. 313–32. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Menzies, R. G. & Clarke, J. C. (1995) The etiology of phobias: A nonassociative account. Clinical Psychology Review 15:23–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, C. J. & Lovibond, P. F. (2002) Backward and forward blocking in human electrodermal conditioning: Blocking requires an assumption of outcome additivity. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 55B:311–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, C. J., Lovibond, P. F. & Condoleon, M. (2005) Evidence for deductive reasoning in blocking of causal judgments. Learning and Motivation 36:77–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moors, A. (2007) Can cognitive methods be used to study the unique aspect of emotion: An appraisal theorist's answer. Cognition and Emotion 21:1238–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moors, A. & De Houwer, J., (2006) Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis. Psychological Bulletin 132:297–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Öhman, A. & Mineka, S. (2001) Fears, phobias and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review 108:483–522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Öhman, A. & Soares, J. J. F. (1993) On the automatic nature of phobic fear: Conditioned electrodermal responses to masked fear-relevant stimuli. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 102:121–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Öhman, A. & Soares, J. J. F. (1994) “Unconscious anxiety”: Phobic responses to masked stimuli. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103:231–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Öhman, A. & Soares, J. J. F. (1998) Emotional conditioning to masked stimuli: Expectancies for aversive outcomes following non-recognized fear-relevant stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 127:69–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parton, D. A. & DeNike, L. D. (1966) Performance hypotheses of children and response to social reinforcement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 4:444–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pavlov, I. (1927) Conditioned reflexes. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pearce, J. M. (1987) A model for stimulus generalization in Pavlovian conditioning. Psychological Review 94:61–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearce, J. M. & Bouton, M. E. (2001) Theories of associative learning in animals. Annual Review of Psychology 52:111–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearce, J. M. & Hall, G. (1980) A model for Pavlovian learning: Variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli. Psychological Review 87:532–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perruchet, P. (1985) A pitfall for the expectancy theory of human eyelid conditioning. Pavlovian Journal of Biological Sciences 20:163–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perruchet, P., Cleeremans, A. & Destrebecqz, A. (2006) Dissociating the effects of automatic activation and explicit expectancy on reaction times in a simple associative learning task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 32:955–65.Google Scholar
Pineño, O., Denniston, J. C., Beckers, T., Matute, H. & Miller, R. R. (2005) Contrasting predictive and causal values of predictors and of causes. Learning and Behavior 33:184–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pleyers, G., Corneille, O., Luminet, O. & Yzerbyt, V. (2007) Aware and (dis)liking: Item-based analyses reveal that valence acquisition via evaluative conditioning emerges only when there is contingency awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 33:130–44.Google ScholarPubMed
Price, P. C. & Yates, J. F. (1993) Judgmental overshadowing: Further evidence of cue interaction in contingency judgment. Memory and Cognition 21:561–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rescorla, R. A. & Wagner, A. R. (1972) A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and non-reinforcement. In: Classical conditioning: Current theory and research, vol. 2, ed. Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F., pp. 64–99. Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Schacter, D. L. (1987) Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13:501–18.Google Scholar
Schmajuk, N. A. & Larrauri, J. A. (2008) Associative models can describe both causal learning and conditioning. Behavioral Processes 77:443–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seligman, M. & Johnston, J. (1973) A cognitive theory of avoidance learning. In: Contemporary approaches to conditioning and learning, ed. McGuigan, F. J. & Lumsden, D. B., pp. 69–110. Winston.Google Scholar
Shanks, D. R. (2007) Associationism and cognition: Human contingency learning at 25. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60:291–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shanks, D. R. & Darby, R. J. (1998) Feature- and rule-based generalization in human associative learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 24:405–15.Google Scholar
Shanks, D. R. & Dickinson, A. (1990) Contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning: A comment on Baeyens, Eelen, and Van den Bergh. Cognition and Emotion 4:19–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shanks, D. R. & St. John, M. F.. (1994) Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:367–447; discussion pp. 447–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sloman, S. A. (1996) The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin 119:3–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1999) Who is rational? Studies of individual differences in reasoning. Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevenson, R. J., Boakes, R. A. & Prescott, J. (1998) Changes in odor sweetness resulting from implicit learning of a simultaneous odor-sweetness association: An example of learned synesthesia. Learning and Motivation 29:113–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strack, F. & Deutsch, R. (2004) Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review 8:220–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, R. F. (2005) In search of memory traces. Annual Review of Psychology 56:1–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vadillo, M. A. & Matute, H. (2007) Predictions and causal estimations are not supported by the same associative structure. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60:433–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandorpe, S., De Houwer, J., & Beckers, T. (2007a) Outcome maximality and additivity training also influence cue competition in causal learning when learning involves many cues and events. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60:356–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, A. R. (1981) SOP: A model of automatic memory processing in animal behavior. In: Information processing in animals: Memory mechanisms, ed. Spear, N. E. & Miller, R. R., pp. 5–47. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Wagner, A. R. & Brandon, S. E. (1989) Evolution of a structured connectionist model of Pavlovian conditioning (AESOP). In: Contemporary learning theories: Pavlovian conditioning and the status of traditional learning theory, ed. Klein, S. B. & Mowrer, R. R., pp. 149–89. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Waldmann, M. R. (2000) Competition among causes but not effects in predictive and diagnostic learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 26:53–76.Google Scholar
Waldmann, M. R. & Walker, J. M. (2005) Competence and performance in causal learning. Learning and Behavior 33:211–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walther, E. & Nagengast, B. (2006) Evaluative conditioning and the awareness issue: Assessing contingency awareness with the four-picture recognition test. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 32:454–59.Google ScholarPubMed
Wardle, S. G., Mitchell, C. J. & Lovibond, P. F. (2007) Flavor evaluative conditioning and contingency awareness. Learning and Behavior 35:233–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weidemann, G., Tangen, J., Lovibond, P. F. & Mitchell, C. J. (in press) Is Perruchet's dissociation between eyeblink conditioned responding and outcome expectancy evidence for two learning systems? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes.Google Scholar
Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S. & Schooler, T. Y. (2000) A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review 107:101–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zinbarg, R. E. (1990) Animal research and behavior therapy part I: Behavior therapy is not what you think it is. The Behavior Therapist 13:171–75.Google Scholar