Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T15:32:24.540Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Précis of Bias in Mental Testing

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Arthur R. Jensen
Arthur R. Jensen
Affiliation:
Institute of Human Learning, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. 94720
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Most standard tests of intelligence and scholastic aptitude measure a general factor of cognitive ability that is common to all such tests – as well as to all complex tasks involving abstraction, reasoning, and problem-solving.

The central question addressed by this inquiry is whether such tests are culturally biased in their discrimination between majority and minority groups in the United States with respect to the traditional uses of such tests in schools, college admissions, and personnel selection in industry and the armed forces.

The fact that such tests discriminate statistically between various subpopulations does not itself indicate test bias. Acceptable criteria of bias are based on (1) the test's validity for predicting the performance (in school, on the job, and so on) of individuals from majority and minority groups, and (2) the internal consistency of the test with respect to relative item difficulty, factorial composition, and internal consistency/reliability.

A review of empirical studies relevant to these two criteria reveals that the preponderance of evidence contradicts the popular belief that the standard tests most widely used at present are culturally biased against minorities. The tests have the same predictive validity for the practical uses of tests in all American-born, English-speaking racial and social groups in the United States.

Factors in the test situation, such as the subject's “test-wiseness” and the race of the tester, are found to be negligible sources of racial group differences.

Keywords

cultural biasintelligenceIQmental testsrace differencessex differencestest bias
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 3 , Issue 3 , September 1980 , pp. 325 - 333
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1980

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Angoff, W. H. (1975) The investigation of test bias in the absence of an outside criterion. Paper presented at the National Institute of Education Conference on Test Bias, Washington, DC. [DRG]Google Scholar
Albee, G. W. (1980) Open letter in response to D. O. Hebb. American Psychologist 35:386–387. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bessman, S. P., Williamson, M. L., & Koch, R. (1978) Diet, genetics and mental retardation interaction between phenylketonuric heterozygous mother and fetus to produce nonspecific diminution in IQ: Evidence in support of the justification hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 75:1562–1566. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Block, N. J., & Dworkin, G., eds, (1976) The IQ controversy, Part II: Genetic component of IQ differences. New York: Pantheon Books/Random House. [JE]Google Scholar
Bloom, B. S. (1976) Human characteristics and school learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. [NB]Google Scholar
Board of Education. (1939) Report of the consultative committee on secondary education with special reference to grammar schools and technical schools. London: H.M. Stationery Office. [DDD]Google Scholar
Bock, R. D., & Vandenberg, S. G. (1968) Components of heritable variation in mental test scores. In: Progress in human behavior genetics, pp. 1–2, ed. Vandenberg, S. G.. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1968. [SGV]Google Scholar
Bodmer, W. F. & Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1970) Intelligence and race. Scientific American 223:19–29. [DW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borgen, F. H. (1972) Differential expectations? Predicting grades for black students in five types of colleges. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance 4 (4):206–212. [HMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976) Schooling in capitalist America. New York: Basic Books. [DLE]Google Scholar
Boykin, A. W. (in press) Experimental psychology from a black perspective: Issues and examples. Journal of Black Studies. [RJS]Google Scholar
Brace, C. L. (1971) Introduction to Jensenism. In: Race and intelligence, ed. Brace, C. L., Gamble, G. R., & Bond, J. T., Anthropological Studies No. 8, pp. 4–9. Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association. [CLB]Google Scholar
Breland, H. M. (1977) Group comparisons for the Test of Standard Written English, College Board Research and Development Report (RDR-77–78, No. 1). Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service. [HMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breland, H. M. (1979) Population validity and college entrance measures. New York: College Board. [HMB, BKE, ART]Google Scholar
Brigham, C. C. (1923) A study of American intelligence. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [RAG]Google Scholar
Brody, E. G., & Brody, N. (1976) Intelligence: Nature, determinants and consequences. New York: Academic Press. [NB]Google Scholar
Brown, A. L., & French, L. A. (1979) The zone of potential development: Implications for intelligence testing in the year 2000. In: Human intelligence: Perspectives on its theory and measurement, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K., Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. [RJS]Google Scholar
Brown, A. W. (1930) Change in intelligence quotients in behaviour problem children. Journal of Educational Psychology 21:341–50. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burks, B. S. (1928) The relative influence of nature and nuture upon mental development: A comparative study of foster parent-foster child resemblance and true parent-true child resemblance. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education 27:219–316. [RAG]Google Scholar
Burt, C. (1925) The young delinquent. London: University of London Press. [DDD, ARJ]Google Scholar
Burt, C. (1962) Francis Galton and his contributions to psychology. British Journal of Statistical Psychology 15:1–49. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callaway, E. (1975) Brain electrical potentials and individual psychological differences. New York: Grune & Stratton. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1971) Abilities: Their structure, growth and action. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [RBC, PK]Google Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1972) Beyondism: A morality from science. New York: Pergamon Press. [RBC]Google Scholar
Centra, J. A., Linn, R. L. & Parry, M. E. (1970) Academic growth in predominantly Negro and predominantly white colleges. American Educational Research Journal 1:83–98. [HMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, A. M., & Clarke, A. D. B. (1979) The cardinal sin. Nature 282:150–151. [DDD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clear, T. A., Humphreys, L. G., Kendrick, S. A., & Wesman, A. (1975) Educational uses of tests with disadvantaged students. American Psychologist 30:15–41. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. (1977) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Rev. ed.New York: Academic Press. [RR]Google Scholar
Cole, J., Gay, J., Glick, J., & Sharp, D. (1971) The cultural context of learning and thinking. New York: Basic Books. [RJS]Google Scholar
Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L. (1966) Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, D. C: Government Printing Office. [BKE, RAG]Google Scholar
Crano, W. D., Kenny, J., & Campbell, D. T. (1972) Does intelligence cause achievement? A cross-lagged panel analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology 63:258–275. [NB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cronbach, L. J. (1975) Five decades of public controversy over mental testing. American Psychologist 30:1–14. [RAG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crow, J. F. (1969) Genetic theories and influences. Harvard Education Review 39:301–309. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darlington, R. B., Royce, J. M., Snipper, A. S., Murray, H. W., and Lazar, I. (1980) Preschool programs and later school competence of children from low-income families. Science 208:202–204. [JH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darwin, C. (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection. London: John Murray. [CLB]Google Scholar
DeFries, J. C., Kuse, A. R., & Vandenberg, S. G. (1979) Genetic correlations, environmental correlations, and behavior. In: Theoretical advances in behavior genetics, ed. Royce, J. R., pp. 398–417, Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands: Sitjthoff & Noordhoff. [SGV]Google Scholar
Dietz, S. M. & Purkey, W. W. (1969) Teacher expectation of performance based on race of student. Psychological Reports 24:694. [RR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Department of the Army. (1976) Staff officer's field manual: Organizational, technical and logistic data. Field manual 101–10–1 Baltimore: U.S. Army AG Publications Center. [RAG]Google Scholar
DHEW (Department of Health, Education, and Welfare). (1976) Intellectual development and school achievement of youths 12–17 years: Demographic and socioeconomic factors. Vital and health statistics: Series II, Data from the National Health Survey; no. 158. DHEW publication; no. (HRA) 77–1640. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. [RAG]Google Scholar
Dorfman, D. D. (1978) The Cyril Burt question: New findings. Science 201:1177–1186. [DW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunnette, M. D. (1964) Critics of psychological tests: Basic Assumptions: How Good. Psychology in the Schools 1:63–9. [JH]3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dusek, J. B. & O'Connell, E. J. (1973) Teacher expectancy effects on the achievement test performance of elementary school children. Journal of Educational Psychology 65:371–377. [RR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckberg, D. L. (1979) Intelligence and race: The origins and dimensions of the IQ controversy. New York: Praeger. [DLE]Google Scholar
Eckland, B. K. (1980) Education in the meritocracy. American Journal of Education 88 (08) [ARJ]Google Scholar
Eckland, B. K., & Alexander, K. (1980) The national longitudinal study of the high school senior class of 1972. In: Longitudinal perspectives on educational attainment, ed. Kerckhoff, A. C., pp. 189–222. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press. [BKE]Google Scholar
Elashoff, J. D., & Snow, R. E. (1971) “Pygmalion” reconsidered. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones. [RR]Google Scholar
Epps, E. G. (1978) Effects of testing conditions on performance of minority children. In: Achievement testing of disadvantaged and minority students for educational program evaluation, ed. Wargo, M. J. & Green, D. R.. Monterey, Calif.: CTB/McGraw-Hill. [DRG]Google Scholar
ETS (Educational Testing Service). (1979) Statement submitted to U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Civil Service. 05 15. [RTO]Google Scholar
Farver, A. S., Sedlacek, W. E., & Brooks, G. C. (1975) Longitudinal predictions of university grades for blacks and whites. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance 7 (4):243–250. [HMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feller, W. (1957) An introduction to probability theory and its applications, vol. 1. New York: Wiley. [DDD]Google Scholar
Feuerstein, R. (1979a) The dynamic assessment of retarded performers: The learning potential assessment device, theory, instruments, and techniques. Baltimore, Md.: University Park Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Feuerstein, R. (1979b) Instrumental enrichment: An intervention program for cognitive modifiability. Baltimore, Md.: University Park Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Fienberg, S. E. (1977) The analysis of cross-classified categorical data. Cambridge: MIT Press. [DDD]Google Scholar
Fisehbein, S. (1980) IQ and social class. Intelligence 4:51–63. [NB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, R. A. (1918) Correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance. Transactions of the Royal Society (Edinburgh) 52:399–433. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulker, D. W. (1973) A biometrical genetic approach to intelligence and schizophrenia. Social Biology 20:266–275. [RBC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller, J. L., & Thompson, W. R. (1978) Foundations of behavior genetics. St. Louis: Mosby. [DW]Google Scholar
Gallon, F. (1892) Hereditary genius. 2nd ed.Cleveland: World. [DLE]Google Scholar
Goldberger, A. S. (1979) Heritability. Economica 46:327–347. [JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldman, R. D. & Hartig, L. K. (1976) The WISC may not be a valid prediction of school performance for primary grade children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 80:583–587. [ARJ]Google ScholarPubMed
Goldman, R. D., & Hewitt, B. N. (1976) Predicting the success of black, Chicano, Oriental, and white college students. Journal of Educational Measurement 13(2):109–117. [HMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldman, R. D., & Widawski, M. H. (1976) A within subjects technique for comparing college grading standards: Implications in the validity of the evaluation of college achievement. Educational and Psychological Measurement 36 (2):381–390. [HMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodnow, J. J. (1976) The nature of intelligent behavior: Questions raised by cross-cultural studies. In: The nature of intelligence, ed. Resnick, L. B.Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [RJS]Google Scholar
Gordon, E. (in press) Human diversity and pedagogy. Westport, Conn.: Mediax Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Gordon, R. A. (1976) Prevalence: The rare datum in delinquency measurement and its implications for the theory of delinquency. In: The juvenile justice system, ed. Klein, M. W.. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage. [RAG]Google Scholar
Gordon, R. A. (in press, a) Labelling theory, mental retardation, and public policy: Larry P. and other developments since 1974. In: The labelling of deviance: Evaluating a perspective, ed. Gove, W. R.. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage. [RAG]Google Scholar
Gordon, R. A. (in press, b) Research on race, IQ, and delinquency: Taboo or not taboo. … ? In: Taboos in criminology, ed. Sagarin, E.. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage. [RAG]Google Scholar
Gordon, R. A., & Rudert, E. E. (1979) Bad news concerning IQ tests. Sociology of Education 52:174–190. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1980) Jensen's last stand. New York Review of Books 27(7):38–44. [GMH, JH, OK]Google Scholar
Gozali, J., & Meyen, E. L. (1970) The influence of the teacher expectancy phenomenon on the academic performances of educable mentally retarded pupils in special classes. Journal of Special Education 4:417–424. [RR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, D. R. (1975) Procedures of assessing bias in achievement tests. Paper presented at the National Institute of Education Conference on Test Bias, Washington, D.C. [DRG]Google Scholar
Green, D. R. (1976) Redicing bias in achievement tests. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco. [DRG]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1954) Psychometric methods. 2nd ed.New York: McGrawHill. [CMH]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1965) Fundamental statistics in psychology and education. 3rd ed.New York: McGraw-Hill. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1967) The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. [LET]Google Scholar
Gulliksen, H. (1950) Theory of mental tests. New York: Wiley. [GMH, PEV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, W. S. (1978) Comments. In: Achievement testing of disadvantaged and minority students for educational program evaluation, ed. Wargo, M. J. & Green, D. R.. Monterey, Calif.: CTB/McGraw-Hill. [DRG]Google Scholar
Hall, W. S., Cole, M., Reder, S., & Dowley, G. (1977) Variations in young children's use of language: Some effects of setting and dialect. In: Discourse production and comprehension, ed. Freedle, R. O., Discourse processes: Advances in research and theory, vol. 1. Norwood, N.J: Ablex. [DRG]Google Scholar
Harrington, G. M. (1975) Intelligence tests may favour the majority groups in a population. Nature 258:708–709. [JH, ARJ, CRR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayek, F. A. (1955) The Counter-revolution of science. London: Free Press. [WRH]Google Scholar
Hearnshaw, L. S. (1979) Cyril Burt: Psychologist. London: Hodder and Stoughton. [DDD]Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1949) The organization of Behavior. New York: Wiley. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Henderson, N. B., Butler, B. V. & Goffeney, B. (1969) Effectiveness of the WISC and Bender Gestalt in predicting arithmetic and reading achievement for white and non-white children. Journal of Clinical Psychology 25:268–71. [ARJ]3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1971) IQ in the meritocracy. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. [RBC]Google Scholar
Hirsch, J. (1963) Behavior genetics and individuality understood: Behaviorism's counterfactual dogma blinded the behavioral sciences to the significance of meiosis. Science 142:1436–1442. [JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirsch, J. (1967) Epilog: Behavior-genetic analysis. In: Behavior-generic analysis, ed. Hirsch, J.. New York: McGraw-Hill. [JH]Google ScholarPubMed
Hirsch, J. (1970) Behavior-genetic analysis and its biosocial consequences. Seminars in Psychiatry 2:89–105. [JH, DW]Google ScholarPubMed
Hirsch, J. (1976) Jensenism: The bankruptcy of “science” without scholarship. United States Congressional Record, 122: No. 73, E2671–2672: No. 74 E2693–2695: No. 75, E2703–2705, E2716–2718, E2721–2722 (originally published in Educational Theory, 1975, 25:3–27, 102). [JH]Google Scholar
Hirsch, J., McGuire, T. R., & Vetta, A. (1980) Concepts of behavior genetics and misapplications to humans. In: The evolution of human social behavior, ed. Lockard, J.. New York: Elsevier-North Holland. [JH]Google Scholar
Hirseh, J., & Vetta, A. (1978) Gli errori concettuali dell'analisi genetico-com- portamentale (The misconceptions of behavior genetics). Richerche di psicologia, Franco Angeli Editore. [JH]Google Scholar
Hirsch, N. D. M. (1930) An experimental study upon three hundred children over a six year period. Genetic Psychology Monographs 7, no. 6. [AV]Google Scholar
Hodos, W., & Campbell, C. B. G. (1969) Scala naturae: Why there is no theory in comparative psychology. Psychological Review 76:337–350. [JH, DW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, J. L., & Cattell, R. B. (1978) A check on the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, with description of new subtest designs. Journal of Educational Measurement 15:139–164. [RBC]Google Scholar
Horst, P. (1968) Psychological measurement and prediction. Belmond, Calif.: Brooks/Cole. [GMH]Google Scholar
Humphreys, L. G. (1973) Statistical definitions of test validity for minority groups. Journal of Applied Psychology 58:1–4. [RBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, J. McV. (1969) Has compensatory education failed? Harvard Educational Review 39:449–483.[AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, J. McV. (1979) Psychological development: Early experience. Annual Review of Psychology 30:103–143. [LET]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunter, J. E. (1975) A critical analysis of the use of item means and item-test correlations to determine the presence or absence of content bias in achievement test items. Paper presented to the National Institute of Education conference on Test Bias, Annapolis, Md. [CRR]Google Scholar
Ingle, D. J. (1978) Fallacies in agruments on human differences. In: Human Variation: The biopsychology of age, race, and sex, ed. Osborne, R. T., Noble, C. E., & Weyl, N.. New York: Academic Press. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Irvine, S. H. (1969) The factor analysis of African abilities and attainments: Constructs across cultures. Psychological Bulletin 71:20–32. [PK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jencks, C. (1972) Inequality: A reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in America. New York: Harper and Row. [DLE]Google Scholar
Jencks, C. (1979) Who gets ahead? The determinants of economic success in America. New York: Basic Books. [JE, ARJ]Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1967) Estimations of the limits of heritability of traits by comparison of monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 50:149–156. [JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1969) How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement? Harvard Educational Review 39:1–123. [AMC, JE, RAG, RTO, PEV, AV, DW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1969a) Reducing the heredity-environment uncertainty. Harvard Educational Review 39:449–483. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1970) IQ's of identical twins reared apart. Behavior Genetics 1:133–148. [DDD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen, A. R. (1971) Can we and should we study race differences? In: Race and intelligence, ed. Brace, C. L., Gamble, G. R., & Bond, J. T., Anthropological Studies No. 8, pp. 10–31. Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association. [CLB]Google ScholarPubMed
Jensen, A. R. (1972) Genetics and education. New York: Harper & Row. [RBC, DDD, RTO, AV]Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1973) Educability and group differences. New York: Harper and Row. [RBC, DDD, JE, RAG, ARJ]Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1974a) How biased are culture-loaded tests? Cenetic Psychology Monographs 90:185–244. [NB]Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1974b) Kinship correlations reported by Sir Cyril Burt. Behavior Genetics 4:1–28. [JE, ARJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen, A. R. (1978) The current status of the IQ controversy. Australian Psychologist 13:7–27. [RAG, ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1979) The nature of intelligence and its relation to learning. Journal of Research and Development in Education 12:79–95. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1980) Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. [cited by ARJ and all commentators]Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1980b) Chronometric analysis of mental ability. Journal of Social and Biological Structures [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1981) Straight talk about mental tests. New York: Free Press. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Jinks, J. L., & Fulker, D. W. (1970). Comparison of biometrical genetical, MAVA and classical approaches to the analysis of human behaviour. Psychological Bulletin 70:311–349. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, D. M. (1948) Applications of the standard-score IQ to social statistics. Journal of Social Psychology 27:217–227. [RAG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordan, W. (1978) White over black: American attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812. Baltimore, Md.: Penguin. [DLE]Google Scholar
Judson, H. F. (1979) The eighth day of creation. New York: Simon & Schuster. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Kamin, L. J. (1974) The science and politics of IQ. New York: Halsted. [JE, DW]Google Scholar
Karlsson, J. L. (1978) Inheritance of creative intelligence. Chicago: Nelson-Hall. [RTO]Google Scholar
Kempthorne, O. (1977) Fundamentals of path analysis and population genetics. Review of C. C. Li (1975), Path analysis: A primer. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Boxwood Press. [JH]Google Scholar
Kempthorne, O. (1978) Logical, epistemological and statistical aspects of Nature-Nurture data interpretation. Biometrics 34:1–23. [DDD, JH, AV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knapp, R. R. (1960) The effects of time limits on the intelligence test performance of Mexican and American subjects. Journal of Educational Psychology 51: 14–20. [RBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, (in press) Intelligence as cultural practice. In: Handbook of human intelligence, ed. Sternberg, R. J.. New York: Cambridge University Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1970) Race and intelligence. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 03:2–8. [JE, DW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1974) The analysis of variance and the analysis of cause. American Journal of Human Genetics 26:400–411. [DW]Google Scholar
Li, C. C. (1955) Population genetics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [JH]Google Scholar
Li, C. C. (1975) Path analysis: A primer. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Boxwood Press. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Linn, R. L. (1973) Fair test use in selection. Review of Educational Research 43 2:139–161. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loehlin, J. C., Lindzey, G., & Spuhler, J. N. (1975) Race differences in intelligence. San Francisco: Freeman. [RBC]Google Scholar
Loehlin, J. C., & Vandenberg, S. G. (1968) Genetic and environmental components in the covariation of cognitive abilities: An additive model. In: Progress in human behavior genetics, ed. Vandenberg, S. G., pp. 261–285. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. [SGV]Google Scholar
Lord, F. M., & Novick, M. R. (1968) Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. [GMH]Google Scholar
Lynn, R. (1978) Ethnic and racial differences in intelligence: International comparisons. In: Human variation: The bio-psychology of age, race and sex, ed. Osborne, R. T., Noble, C. E., & Weyl, N.. New York: Academic Press. [RBC]Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C. (1974) Testing for competence rather than for “intelligence.” In: The new assault on equality, ed. Gartner, A., Greer, C., & Riessman, F.. New York: Harper and Row. [DLE]Google Scholar
McDill, E. L., McDill, M. S., & Sprehe, J. T. (1969) Strategies for success in compensatory education. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. [RAG]Google Scholar
McGuire, T. R., & Hirsch, J. (1977) General intelligence (g) and heritability (H2, h2). In: The structuring of experience, ed. Uzgiris, E. C. & Weizmann, G.. New York: Plenum Press. [JH]Google Scholar
McGurk, F. C. J. (1967) The culture hypothesis and psychological tests. In: Race and Modern Science, ed. Kuttner, R. E.. New York: Social Science Press. [ARJ]Google Scholar
McNemar, Q. (1942) The revison of the Stanford-Binet scale. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [RAG]Google Scholar
McNemar, Q. (1949) Psychological statistics. New York: Wiley. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Maxwell, A. E. (1972) Factor analysis; Thomson's sampling theory recalled. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology 25:1–21. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Medawar, P. B. (1977) Unnatural science. New York Review of Books, 02: 13–18. [DDD]Google Scholar
Merz, W. R. (1978) Test fairness and test bias: A review of procedures. In: Achievement testing of disadvantaged and minority students for educational program evaluation, ed. Wargo, M. J. & Green, D. R.. Monterey, Calif.: CTB/McGraw-Hill. [DRG]Google Scholar
Messé, L. A., Crano, W. D., Messé, S. R., & Rice, W. (1979) Evaluation of the predictive validity of tests of mental ability for classroom performance in elementary grades. Journal of educational psychology 71:233–241. [ARJ, LEL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulaik, Stanley A. (1972) The Foundations of factor analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill. [OK]Google Scholar
Munday, L. (1965) Predicting college grades in predominantly Negro colleges. Journal of Educational Measurement 2:157–160. [HMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
News and views. (1980) Nature 284:402. [JH]Google Scholar
Nichols, R. C. (1979) Policy implications of the IQ controversy. In: Review of Research in Education, ed. Shulman, L. S., Vol. 6. Itasea, Ill.: Peacock. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Nunally, J. C. (1967) Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. [GMH]Google Scholar
Rozeboom, W. W. (1966) Foundations of the theory of prediction. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey. [GMH]Google Scholar
Okun, A. M. (1976) Equal rights but unequal incomes. New York Times Magazine, 07 4:101ff. [RAG]Google Scholar
Ozenne, D. G., Van Gelder, N. C., & Cohen, A. J. (1974) Achievement test restandardization: Emergency School Aid Act national evaluation. Santa Monica, Calif: System Development Corporation. [DRG]Google Scholar
Peckham, R. F. (1979) Opinion. Larry P. et al. v. Wilson Riles et al. United States District Court, Northern District of California, San Franscisco. No. C-71–2270RFP. [RAG, RTO, CRR]Google Scholar
Plomin, R., & DeFries, J. C. (1980) Genetics and intelligence: Recent data. Intelligence 4:15–24. [RAG, ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitt, C. C. V.An experimental study of the effects of teacher's knowledge or incorrect knowledge of pupil IQ's on teachers' attitudes and practices and pupils' attitudes and achievement. Dissertation Abstracts 16:2387–2388. [RR]Google Scholar
Reschley, D. J. & Reschley, J. E. (1979) Validity of WISC-R factor scores in predicting achievement and attention for four sociocultural groups. Journal of School Psychology 17:335–61. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Reynolds, C. R. (in press a) The problem of bias in psychological assessment. In: The Handbook of School Psychology, ed. Reynolds, C. R. & Gutkin, T. B.. New York: John Wiley and Sons. [CRR]Google Scholar
Reynolds, C. R. (in press b) Differential construct validity of intelligence as popularly measured: Correlations of raw scores with age on the WISC-R for blacks, whites, males, and females. Intelligence: A Multidisciplinary Journal. [CRR]Google Scholar
Rosenthal, R. (1978) How often are out numbers wrong? American Psychologist 33:1005–1008. [RR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968) Pygmalion in the classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. [ARJ, RR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1971) Pygmalion reaffirmed. In: Pygmalion reconsidered, ed. Elashoff, J. D. & Snow, R. E.. pp. 139–155. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones. [RR]Google Scholar
Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1978) Interpersonal expectancy effects: The first 345 studies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:377–386. [RR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1979) A note on percent variance explained as a measure of the importance of effects. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 9:395–396. [RR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1980) A simple, general purpose display of magnitude of experimental effect. Unpublished manuscript, Harvard University. [RR]Google Scholar
Rudner, L. M. (1977) Efforts toward the development of unbiased selection und assessment instruments. Paper presented at the Third International Symposium on Educational Testing, University of Leyden, The Netherlands. [DRC]Google Scholar
Samuel, W. (1977) Observed IQ as a function of test atmosphere, tester expectation, and race of tester: A replication for female subjects. Journal of Educational Psychology 69:593b–604. [ARJ, RR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarr, S., & Carter-Saltzman, L. (in press) Cenetics and intelligence. In: Handbook of human intelligence, ed. Sternberg, R. J.. New York: Cambridge University Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Scarr-Salapatek, S. (1971) Race, social class and IQ. Science 174:1285–1295. [DW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Savage, I. R. (1975) Review of J. C. Loehlin, G. Lindzey, & J. N. Spuhler, 1975, Race differences in intelligence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Education 2:1–37. [JH]Google Scholar
Seaver, W. B. (1973) Effects of naturally induced teacher expectancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 28:333–342. [RR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sewall, G., & Howard, L. (1979) A high grade for Head Start. Newsweek 10 8:102 p. 102. [JH]Google Scholar
Shuey, A. M. (1966) The testing of Negro intelligence. 2nd ed.New York: Social Science Press. [RBC, RAG]Google Scholar
Silverman, B. I., Barton, F., & Lyon, M. (1976) Minority group status and bias in college admission criteria. Educational and Psychological Measurement 36(2):401–407. [HMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spearman, C. (1904) “General intelligence”: Objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15:201–292. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spearman, C. (1914) The heredity of abilities. Eugenics Review 6:219–237. [JH]Google ScholarPubMed
Speneer, H. (1899) The principles of psychology, I. 3rd ed.New York: D. Appleton. [DLE]Google Scholar
Stafford, R. E. (1961) Sex differences in spatial visualization as evidence of sexlinked inheritance. Perceptual and Motor Skills 13:300–308. [RBC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terman, I. M. (1916) The measurement of intelligence. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [DLE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terman, I. M. (1917) Feeble-minded children in the public schools of California. School and Society, 5:161–165. [DLE]Google Scholar
Terman, L. M., & Merrill, M. A. (1960) Stanford-Binet intelligence scale: Manual for the third revision, Form L-M. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [RAG]Google Scholar
Thoday, J. M. (1973) Review of A. R. Jensen, 1973, Educability and group differences. Nature 245:418–420. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, G., Alexander, K., & Eckland, B. K. (1979) Access to higher education: The importance of race, sex, social class, and academic credentials, School Review 87:133–56. [BKE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1905) Measurements of twins. In: Archives of philosophy, psychology and scientific methods, ed. Cattell, J. M. & Woodbridge, F. J. E.. New York: Science Press. 09 1905-07 1906, 1:1–63. [RTO]Google Scholar
Tillyard, E. M. W. (1944) The Elizabethan world picture. New York: Random House. [DLE]Google Scholar
Triandis, H., Matpass, R. S., & Davidson, A. R. (1971) Cross-cultural psychology. In: Biennial review of anthropology, ed. Siegel, B. J.. Stanford: Stanford University Press. [PK]Google Scholar
Tuddenham, R. D. (1948) Soldier intelligence in World Wars I and II. American Psychologist 3:54–56. [RAG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Urbach, P. (1974) Progress and degeneration in the IQ debate. British Journal of the Philosophy of Science 25:99–135, 235–59. [ARJ, RTO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. (1965) Multivariate analysis of twin differences. In: Methods and goals in human behavior genetics, ed. Vandenberg, S. G.. pp. 29–40. New York: Academic Press. [SGV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. (1968) The nature and nurture of intelligence. In: Genetics, ed. Glass, D. C., pp. 3–58. New York: Rockefeller University Press & Russell Sage Foundation. [SGV]Google Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. (1973) Comparative studies of multiple factor ability measures. In: Theoretical problems in multivariate research, ed. Royce, J.. New York: Academic Press. [SGV]Google Scholar
Van Valen, L. (1974) Brain size and intelligence in man. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 40:417–423. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vernon, P. E. (1979) Intelligence: Heredity and environment. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Vetta, A. (1975) Regression to the mean. Social Biology 22:87–88. [AV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vetta, A. (1977) Genetical concepts and IQ. Social Biology 24:166–169. [AV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vetta, A. (1977a) Estimation of heritability from IQ data on twins. Nature 266:279. [JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vetta, A. (1980) Concepts and issues in the IQ debate. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, in Press. [AV]Google Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) In: The development of higher psychological processes, ed. Cole, M., John-Steiner, V., Scribner, S., & Souberman, E.. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [RJS]Google Scholar
Wahlsten, D. (1978) Behavioral genetics and animal learning. In: Psychopharmacology of aversively motivated behavior, ed. Anisman, H. & Bignami, G.. New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Wahlsten, D. (1979) A critique of the concepts of heritability and heredity in behavioral genetics. In: Theoretical advances in behavior genetics, ed. Royce, J. R. & Mos, L. P.. Germantown, Md.: Sithoff & Noordhoff. [DW]Google Scholar
Warburton, F. J. (1951) The ability of the Ghurkha recruit. British Journal of Psychology, 42:123–133. [PK]Google Scholar
Wallach, M. A. (1976) Tests tell us little about talent. American Scientist 64:57–63. [DLE]Google Scholar
Weiss, R. H. (1972) Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des “Culture Fair Intelligence Tests” (CFT) in der Schulbahnberatung. In: Festschrift for Dr. D. W. Arnold. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. [RBC]Google Scholar
Weizmann, F. (1970) Correlational statistics and the nature-nurture problem. Science 171:589. [JH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willerman, L. (1979) Effects of families on intellectual development. American Psychologist 34:923–929. [ARJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, T. R. (ed.) (1975) Psychological anthropology. The Hague: Mouton. [PK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, J. R., & Vandenberg, S. G. (1978) Sex differences in cognition: Evidence from the Hawaii Family Study. In: Sex and behavior: Status and prospectus, ed. McGill, T. E., Dewsbury, D. A., & Sachs, B. D., pp. 317–336. [SGV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, R. S. (1978) Synchronies in mental development: An epigenetic perspective. Science 202:939–948. [DW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wober, M. (1973) Towards an understanding of the Kigmda concept of intelligence. In: Culture and cognition: Readings in cross-cultured psychology, ed. Berry, J. W. & Dasen, P. R.. London: Methuen. [PK]Google Scholar
Wright, S. (1921) Correlation and scusation. Journal of Agricultural Research 20:557–585. [ARJ]Google Scholar
Yerkes, R. M.Psychological examining in the United States Army. Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 15:1–890. [RAG]Google Scholar
Batshaw, L. M., Roan, Y., Jung, A. L., Rosenberg, L. A. & Brusilow, S. W. (1980) Cerebral dysfunction in asymptomatic carriers of ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency. New England Journal of Medicine 302, Vol. 8: 482–485. [FV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thalhammer, O., Pollak, A., Lubec, G. & Königshofer, H. (1980) Intracellular Concentrations of Phenylalanine, Tyrosine and alpha-Aminobutyric Acid in 13 Homozygotes and 19 Heterozygotes for Phenylketonuria (PKU) Compared with 26 Normals. Human Genetics 54:213–216. [FV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thalhammer, O., Lubec, G. & Königshofer, H. (1979) Intrevellular phenylalanine and tyrosine concentrations in 19 heterozygotes for phenylketonuria (PKU) and 26 normals. Do the higher values in heterozygotes explain their lowered intellectual level? Human Genetics 49:333. [FV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thalhammer, O., Havelec, L., Knoll, E. & Wehle, E. (1977) Intellectual level (IQ) in heterozygotes for phenylketonuria (PKU). Is the PKU gene also acting by means other than phenylalanine blood level elevation? Human Genetics 38:285. [FV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vogel, F. & Motulsky, A. G. (1979) Human Genetics—Problems and Approaches. New York: Springer-Verlag. [FV]Google Scholar