Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-06T03:53:46.594Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Four frames suffice: A provisional model of vision and space

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Jerome A. Feldman
Jerome A. Feldman
Affiliation:
Computer Science Department, University of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y. 14627
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper presents a general computational treatment of how mammals are able to deal with visual objects and environments. The model tries to cover the entire range from behavior and phenomenological experience to detailed neural encodings in crude but computationally plausible reductive steps. The problems addressed include perceptual constancies, eye movements and the stable visual world, object descriptions, perceptual generalizations, and the representation of extrapersonal space.

The entire development is based on an action-oriented notion of perception. The observer is assumed to be continuously sampling the ambient light for information of current value. The central problem of vision is taken to be categorizing and locating objects in the environment. The critical step in this process is the linking of visual information to symbolic object descriptions; this is called indexing, from the analogy of identifying a book from index terms. The system must also identify situations and use this knowledge to guide movement and other actions in the environment. The treatment focuses on the different representations of information used in the visual system.

The four representational frames capture information in the following forms: retinotopic, head-based, symbolic, and allocentric. The functional roles of the four frames, the communication among them, and their suggested neurophysiological realization constitute the core of the paper. The model is perforce crude, but appears to be consistent with all relevant findings.

Keywords

attentioncomputationconnectionismconstancyextrastriate cortexeye movementmachine perceptionneural modelingspacevision
Type
Target article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 8 , Issue 2 , July 1985 , pp. 265 - 289
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1985

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackley, D. H., Hinton, G. E. & Sejnowski, T. J. (1985) A learning algorithm for Boltzmann machines. Cognitive Science. [tarJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allman, J. M., Baker, J. F., Newsome, W. T. & Petersen, S. E. (1981) Visual topography and function: Cortical-visual areas in the owl monkey. In: Cortical sensory organization, ed. Woolsey, C. N.. Humana Press. [RAA, tarJAF]Google Scholar
Amari, S. (1982) A mathematical theory of self-organizing nerve systems. In: Biomathematics in 1980, ed. Ricciardi, L. M. & Scott, A.. North-Holland. [SG]Google Scholar
Amari, S. & Arbib, M. A. (1977) Competition and cooperation in neural networks. In: Systems neurosciences, ed. Metzler, J.. Academic Press. [SG]Google Scholar
Amari, S. & Arbib, M. A. (1982) Competition and cooperation in neural networks. Vol. 45 of Lecture Notes in Biomatheinatics, ed. Levin, S.. Springer-Verlag. [tarJAF, SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amari, S. & Takeuchi, A. (1978) Mathematical theory on formation of category detecting nerve cells. Biological Cybernetics 29:127–36. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andersen, R. A., Asanuma, C. & Cowan, W. M. (1982) Observations on the callosal and associational cortico-cortical connections of area 7a of the macaque monkey. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 8:210. [RAA]Google Scholar
Andersen, R. A., Essick, G. K. & Siegel, R. M. (1984) The role of eye position on the visual response of neurons in area 7A. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 10:934. [RAA, BJR]Google Scholar
Andersen, R. A. & Mountcastle, V. B. (1983) The influence of the angle of gaze upon the excitability of the light-sensitive neurons of the posterior parietal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience Research 3:532–48. [RAA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, J. R. (1983) The architecture of Çognition. Harvard University Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Anstis, S. M. (1974) A chart demonstrating variations in acuity with retinal position. Vision Research 14:589–92. [RAB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asanuma, C.Andersen, R. A. & Cowan, W. M. (1982) Divergent cortical projections of the medial pulvinar nucleus: A retrograde fluorescent tracer study in the monkey. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 8:210. [RAA]Google Scholar
Attneave, F. (1972) Representation of physical space. In: Coding theory in learning and memory. Melton & Margin, Winston. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Ballard, D. H. (1984) Parameter networks. Artificial Intelligence 22:235–67. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballard, D. H. (1985) Cortical connections: Structure and function. In: Vision, brain and cooperative computation, ed. Arbib, M. A. & Hanson, A. R.. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [rJAF]Google Scholar
Ballard, D. H. & Brown, C. M. (1982) Computer vision. Prentice-Hall. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Ballard, D. H. & Coleman, P. (1984) Cortical connections: Structure and function. Submitted. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Ballard, D. H., Hinton, G. E. & Sejnowski, T. J. (1983) Parallel visual computation. Nature 306:321–26. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barlow, H. B. (1981) Critical limiting factors in the design of the eye and visual cortex. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 212:1–34. [taJAF]Google ScholarPubMed
Barrow, H. G. & Tenenbaum, J. M. (1978) Recovering intrinsic scene characteristics from images. In: Computer vision systems, ed. Hanson, A. R. & Riseman, E. M.. Academic Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Basar, E., Flohr, H., Haken, H. & Mandell, A. J. (1983) Synergetics of the brain. Springer-Verlag. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bisiach, E., Luzzati, C. & Perani, D. (1979) Unilateral neglect, representational schema and consciousness. Brain 102:609–18 [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boring, E. (1942) Sensations and perception in the history of experimental psychology. Appleton. [PCD]Google Scholar
Brady, M., ed. (1982) Computer vision. Reprinted from the journal Artificial Intelligence, vol. 17. MIT Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Brewer, W. F. & Treyens, J. C. (1981) Role of schemata in memory for places. Cognitive Psychology 13:207–30. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brindley, G. S. & Merton, P. A. (1960) The absence of position sense in the human eye. Journal of Physiology 153:127–30. [RNH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, C. M. (1984) Computer vision and natural constraints. Science 24:1299–1305. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browse, R. A. (1982) Knowledged-based visual interpretation using declarative schemata. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of British Columbia. Technical Report 82–12. [RAB]Google Scholar
Browse, R. A. (1983) Computational selection of processing location in vision. Proceedings, Fifth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Rochester, New York. [RAB]Google Scholar
Bruce, C.Desimone, R. & Gross, C. G. (1981) Visual properties of neurons in a polysensory area in superior temporal sulcus of the macaque. Journal of Neurophysiology 46:369–384. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buser, P. A. & Raquel-Buser, A., eds. (1978) Cerebral correlates of conscious experience. North-Holland. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Butler, B. E. (1978) Sequential and parallel operations in tachistoscopic presentations. Canadian Journal of Psychology 32:241–56. [RAB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caelli, T. (1984) Book review. Mathematical Biosciences 70:115. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, R. H. S. (1977) Movements of the eyes. Pion Limited. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1967) Current issues in linguistics. Mouton. [SMK]Google Scholar
Cohen, M. A. & Grossberg, S. (1984) Neural dynamics of brightness perception: Features, boundaries, diffusion, and resonance. Perception and Psychophysics, in press. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collett, T. (1982) Do toads plan routes? A study of the detour behaviour of Bufo Viridis. Journal of Comparative Physiology 146:261–71. [rJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, A. M. & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82:407–29. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coltheart, M. (1984) Sensory memory: A tutorial review. In: Attention and performance 10, ed. Bouma, H. & Bouwhuis, D. G.. Erlbaum Associates. [RAB]Google Scholar
Coren, S. (1981) The interaction between eye movements and visual illusions. In: Eye movements: Cognition and visual perception, ed. Fisher, D. F., Monty, R. A. & Senders, J. W.. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Coren, S., Bradley, D. R., Hoenig, P. & Girgus, J. S. (1975) The effect of smooth tracking and saccadic eye movements on the perception of size: The shrinking circle illusion. Vision Research 15:49–55. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cotman, C. W., Nieto-Sampedro, M. & Harris, E. W. (1981) Synapse replacement in the nervous system of adult vertebrates. Physiological Reviews 61:684–738. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowey, A. (1981) Why are there so many visual areas? In: The organization of the cerebral cortex, ed. Schmitt, F. O., Warden, F. G., Adelman, G. & Dennis, S. G.. MIT Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Crane, H. E. & Piantanida, T. P. (1983) On seeing reddish green and yellowish blue. Science 221:1078–79. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, M. L., Fox, M. J. & Dick, A. O. (1973) Effect of eye movements on backward masking and perceived location. Perception and Psychophijsics 14:110–16. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dell, G. S. & Reich, P. A. (1980) Toward a unified model of slips of the tongue. In: Errors in linguistic performance: Slips of the tongue, ear, pen, and hand, ed. Fromkin, V. A.. Academic Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
De Renzi, E. (1982) Disorders of space exploration and cognition. John Wiley & Sons. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Desimone, R., Albright, T. D., Gross, C. G. & Bruce, C. (1984) Stimulus-selective properties of inferior temporal neurons in the macaque. Journal of Neuroscience, 4:2051–62. [rJAF, BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodwell, P. C. (1971) Is a theory of conceptual development necessary? In: Cognitive development and epistemology, ed. Mischel, T.. Academic Press. [PCD]Google Scholar
Dodwell, P. C. (1975) Contemporary theoretical problems in seeing. In: Handbook of perception, Vol. 5: Seeing, ed. Carterette, E. & Friedman, M.. Academic Press. [PCD]Google Scholar
Dodwell, P. C. (1978) Human perception of patterns and objects. In: Handbook of sensory physiology, vol. 8: Perception, ed. Held, R., Leibowitz, H. W. & Teuber, H. L.. Springer. [PCD]Google Scholar
Dodwell, P. C. (1983). The Lie Transformation Group model of visual perception. Perception and Psychophysics 36:1–16. [PCD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellias, S. A. & Grossberg, S. (1975) Pattern formation, contrast control, and oscillations in the short term memory of shunting on-center off-surround networks. Biological Cybernetics 20:69–98. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, W., ed. (1977) Stability and constancy in visual perception: Mechanisms and processes. John Wiley & Sons. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Essick, G. K., Andersen, R. A. & Siegel, R. M. (1984) Fixation and saccade-related area 7A neurons receive visual inputs. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 10:476. [RAA]Google Scholar
Fahlman, S. E. (1979) NETL. A system for representing and using real knowledge. MIT Press. [RJB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fahlman, S. E. (1980) The Hashnet interconnection scheme. Computer Science Dept., Carnegie-Mellon University. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Feldman, J. A. (1981) A connectionist model of visual memory. In: Parallel models of associative memory, ed. Hinton, G. E. & Andersen, J. A.. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Feldman, J. A. (1982a) Dynamic connections in neural networks. Biological Cybernetics 46:27–39. [tarJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, J. A. (1982b) Four frames suffice: A provisionary model of vision and space. TR99 Computer Science Dept., University of Rochester. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Feldman, J. A. & Ballard, D. H. (1982) Connectionist models and their properties. Cognitive Science 6:205–54. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, J. A. & Shastri, L. (1984) Evidential inference in activation networks. Proceedings, Cognitive Science Conference, Boulder, Colorado. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Festinger, L. & Canon, L. K. (1965) Information about spatial location based on knowledge about efference. Psychological Review 72:373–84. [RNH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, D. F., Monty, R. A. and Senders, J. W., eds. (1981) Eye movements: Cognition and visual perception. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. & Pylyshyn, Z. (1981) How direct is visual perception? Some reflections on Gibson's ecological approach. Cognition 9:139–96. [PCD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fukushima, K. (1980) Neocognition: A self-organizing neural network model for a mechanism of pattern recognition unaffected by shift in position. Biological Cybernetics 36:193–202. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gentilucci, M., Scandolara, C., Pigarev, I. N. & Rizzolatti, G. (1983) Visual responses in the postarcuate cortex (area 6) of the monkey that are independent of eye position. Experimental Brain Research 50:464–68. [taJAF]Google ScholarPubMed
Gibson, J. J. (1950) The perception of the visual world. Houghton-Mifflin. [RNH]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1966) The senses considered as perceptual systems. Houghton-Mifflin. [PCD, RNH]Google Scholar
Gilbert, C. D. (1983) Microcircuitry of the visual cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience 6:217–47. [BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilchrist, A. L. (1977) Perceived lightness depends on perceived spatial arrangement. Science 195:185–87. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glassman, R. B. (1978) The logic of the lesion experiment and its role in the neural sciences. In: Recovery from brain damage, ed. Finger, S.. Plenum Press. [RBC]Google Scholar
Glassman, R. B. & Wimsatt, W. C. (1984) Evolutionary advantages and limitations of early plasticity. In: Early brain damage, vol. 1, Research orientations and clinical observations, ed. Almli, C. R. & Finger, S.. Academic Press. [RBC]Google Scholar
Goldberg, M. E. & Bruce, C. J. (1981) Frontal eye fields in the monkey: Eye movements remap the effective coordinates of visual stimuli. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 7:131. [BJR]Google Scholar
Goldberg, M. E. & Bushnell, M. C. (1981) Role of the frontal eye fields in visually guided saccades. In: Progress in oculomotor research, ed. Fuchs, A. F. & Becker, W.. Elsevier/North-Holland [SG]Google Scholar
Gordon, G., ed. (1978) Active touch. Pergamon Press. [RBG]Google Scholar
Graybiel, A. M. & Berson, D. M. (1981) Families of related cortical areas in the extrastriate visual system: Summary of an hypothesis. In: Cortical sensory organization, ed. Woolsey, C. N.. Humana Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Gregory, R. L. (1970) The intelligent eye. McGraw-Hill. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Gross, C. G, Bruce, C. J., Desimone, R., Fleming, J. & Gattass, R. (1981) Cortical visual areas of the temporal lobe: Three areas in the macaque. In: Cortical sensory organization, ed. Woolsey, C. N.. Humana Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Gross, C. G. & Mishkin, M. (1977) The neural basis of stimulus equivalence across retinal translation. In: Laterialization in the Nervous System, ed. Harnad, S. et al. Academic Press. [rJAF]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1980) How does a brain build a cognitive code? Psychological Review 87:1–51. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossberg, S. (1982a) Studies of mind and brain: Neural principles of learning, perception, development, cognition, and motor control. Reidel Press. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1982b) Processing of expected and unexpected events during conditioning and attention: A psychophysiological theory. Psychological Review 89:529–72. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossberg, S. (1984) Outline of a theory of brightness, color, and form perception. In: Trends in mathematical psychology, ed. Degreef, E. & van Buggenhaut, J.. North-Holland. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. & Kuperstein, M. (1985) Adaptive neural dynamics of ballistic eye movements. North-Holland. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. & Levine, D. S. (1975) Some developmental and attentional biases in the contrast enhancement and short-term memory of recurrent neural networks. Journal of Theoretical Biology 53:341–80. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossberg, S. & Mingolla, E. (1985) Neural dynamics of form perception: Contour completion, illusory figures, and neon color spreading. Psychological Review, in press. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guthrie, B. L., Porter, J. D. & Sparks, D. L. (1983) Corollary discharge provides accurate eye position information to the oculomotor system. Science 221:1193–95. [taJAF, SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haber, R. N. (1979) When is sensory-motor information necessary, when only useful, and when superfluous? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:263–65. [RNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haber, R. N. (1983a) Stimulus information and processing mechanisms in visual space perception. In: Human and machine vision, ed. Beck, J., Hope, B. & Rosenfeld, A.. [tarJAF, RNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haber, R. N. (1983b)) The impending demise of the icon: The role of iconic processes in information processing theories of perception. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:1–55. [tarJAF, RNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haber, R. N. (1985) An icon can have no worth in the real world: Commentary on Loftus, Johnson & Shimamura's “How much is the worth of an icon?”. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 11, in press. [RNH]Google Scholar
Haber, R. N. & Hershenson, M. (1980) The psychology of visual perception, 2d ed.Holt. [RNH]Google Scholar
Hart, R. A. & Moore, G. T. (1973) The development of spatial cognition: A review. In: Image and environment, ed. Downs, R. M. & Stea, D.. Aldine. [BK]Google Scholar
Hayhoe, M. M. & Williams, D. R. (1984) Disappearance of afterimages at “impossible” locations in space. Perception 13:455–59. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hebb, D. O. (1949) The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. John Wiley & Sons. [PCD, taJAF, KO]Google Scholar
Hein, A. & Jeannerod, M., eds. (1983) Spatially oriented behavior. Springer-Verlag. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinton, G. E. (1981) Shape representation in parallel systems. Proceedings, 7th International Joint Conference on Artifical Intelligence. Vancouver, B.C. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Hinton, G. E. & Anderson, J. A., eds. (1981) Parallel models of associative memory. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Hintzman, D. L., O'Dell, C. S. & Arndt, D. R. (1981) Orientation in cognitive maps. Cognitive Psychology 13:149–206. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hochberg, J. (1964) Perception. Prentice-Hall. [taJAF]Google ScholarPubMed
Horn, G., Stechler, G. & Hill, R. M. (1972) Receptive fields of units in the visual cortex of the cat in the presence and absence of bodily tilt. Experimental Brain Research 15:113–32. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howard, I. P. (1982) Human visual orientation. John Wiley & Sons. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Hrechanyk, L. M. & Ballard, D. H. (1983) Viewframes: A connectionist model of form perception. Proceedings, Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Conference. Washington, DC. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Hummel, R. A. & Zucker, S. W. (1983) On the foundation of relaxation labeling processes. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence PAM 1–5:267–87. [SWZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johansson, G. (1977) Spatial constancy and motion in visual perception. In: Stability and constancy in visual perception: Mechanisms and processes, ed. Esptein, W.. John Wiley & Sons. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Jusczyk, P. W. & Klein, R. M., eds. (1980) The nature of thought: Essays in honour of D. O. Hebb. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Kaas, J. H. (1982) The segregation of function in the nervous system: Why do sensory systems have so many subdivisions? In: Contributions to sensory physiology, vol. 7, ed. Neff, W. D.. Academic Press. [RBG]Google Scholar
Kosslyn, S. M. (1980) Images and mind. Harvard University Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Kowler, E. & Steinman, R. M. (1980) Microsaccades serve no useful purpose. Vision Research 20:273–76. [RNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuipers, B. (1978) Modeling spatial knowledge. Cognitive Science 2:129–53. [taJAF, BK]Google Scholar
Kuipers, B. (1982) The “map in the head” metaphor. Environment and Behavior 14:202–20. [BK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuipers, B. (1983a) The cognitive map: Could it have been any other way? In: Spatial Orientation: Theory, research, and application, ed. Pick, H. L. Jr. & Acredolo, L. P.. Plenum Press. [BK]Google Scholar
Kuipers, B. (1983b) Modeling human knowledge of routes: Partial knowledge and individual variation. In: Proceedings, National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-83). Washington, D.C. [taJAF, BK]Google Scholar
LaMotte, R. H. & Acuna, C. (1978) Defects in accuracy of reaching after removal of posterior parietal cortex in monkeys. Brain Research 139:309–26. [RAA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lashley, K. S. (1929) Brain mechanisms and intelligence. University of Chicago Press. [KO]Google Scholar
Leclerc, Y. & Zucker, S. W. (1984) The local structure of intensity discontinuities. Optics News 10:71. [rJAF, SWZ]Google Scholar
Lee, C. & Estes, W. K. (1977) Order and position in primary memory for letter strings. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 16:395–418. [SC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leibowitz, H. W., Post, R. B., Brandt, T. & Dichgans, J. (1982) Implications of recent developments in dynamic spatial orientation and visual resolution for vehicle guidance. In: Tutorials on motion perception, ed. Wertheim, A. H., Wagenaar, W. A. & Leibowitz, H. W.. Plenum Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Leibowitz, H. W., Shupert, C. L., Post, R. B. & Dichgans, J. (1983) Autokinetic drifts and gaze deviations. Perception and Psychophysics 33:455–59. [RNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lisberger, S. G. & McKenzie, A. (1984) Saccadic eye movements are programmed without feedback about smooth changes in eye position. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 58. [BJR]Google Scholar
Livingstone, M. S. & Hubel, D. H. (1985) Specificity of cortico-cortical connections in monkey visual system. Nature 304:531–34. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lynch, J. C. (1980) The functional organization of posterior parietal association cortex. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:485–534. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lynch, J. C., Mountcastle, V. B., Talbot, W. H. & Yin, T. C. T. (1977) Parietal lobe mechanisms for directed visual attention. Journal of Neurophysiology 40:362–89. [RAA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynch, K. (1960) The image of the city. MIT Press. [BK]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. & Rumelhart, D. E. (1981) An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review 88:375–407. [tarJAF, SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, D. (1980) Spatial inferences with ground, metric formulas on simple objects. Yale University, Dept. of Computer Science, Research Report 173. [taJAF]Google Scholar
MacKay, D. M. (1966) Cerebral organization and the conscious control of action. In: Brain and conscious experiences, ed. Eccles, J. C.. Springer. [PCD]Google Scholar
MacKay, D. M. (1973) Visual stability and voluntary eye movements. In: Central processing of visual information: Integrative functions and comparative data, ed. Jung, R.. Springer-Verlag. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Macko, K. A., Jarvis, C. D., Kennedy, C.Miyaoka, M., Shinohara, M., Sokoloff, L. & Mishkin, M. (1982) Mapping the primate visual system with [2-14C] deoxyglucose. Science 218:394–96. [tarJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malsburg, C. von der. (1973) Self-organization of orientation sensitive cells in the striate cortex. Kybernetik 14:85–100. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marr, D. C. (1982) Vision. Freeman. [PCD, taJAF, KO, SWZ]Google Scholar
Maunsell, J. H. R. & Van Essen, D. C.. (1983) The connections of the middle temporal visual area (MT) and their relationship to a cortical hierarchy in the macaque monkey. Journal of Neuroscicnce Research 3:2563–86. [RAA]Google ScholarPubMed
Mays, L. E. & Sparks, D. L. (1980) Saccades are spatially, not retinocentrically, coded. Science 208:1163–65. [tarJAF, SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menzel, E. W. (1973) Chimpanzee spatial memory organization. Science 182:943–95. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mewhort, D. J. K. & Butler, B. E. (1983) On the nature of brief visual storage: There never was an icon. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:31–33. [RAB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michaels, C. F. & Carello, C. (1981) Direct preoption. Prentice-Hall. [RNH]Google Scholar
Minsky, M. (1980) K-lines: A theory of memory. Cognitive Science 4:117–33. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Minsky, M. & Papert, S. (1972) Perccptrons. MIT Press. [taJAF, SWZ]Google Scholar
Morgan, M. J. (1981) How pursuit eye movements can convert temporal into spatial information. In: Eye movements: Cognition and visual perception, ed. Fisher, D. F., Monty, R. A. & Senders, J. W.. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Movshon, J. A. (1985) The neurophysiological analysis of visual motion. In: Vision, brain and cooperative computation, ed. Arbib, M. A. & Hanson, A. R.. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [rJAF]Google Scholar
Muroga, S. (1971) Threshold logic and its applications. Wiley-Interscience. [SWZ]Google Scholar
Navon, D. (1977) Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception. Cognitive Psychology 9:353–83. [RAB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navon, D. (1981) The forest revisited: More on global precedence. Psychological Research 43:1–32. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newsome, W. T., Gizzi, M. S. & Movshon, J. A. (1983) Spatial and temporal properties of neurons in macaque MT. Association for Research in Vision and Opthamology. Sarasota, Florida. [rJAF]Google Scholar
Oatley, K. (1978) Perceptions and representations: The theoretical bases of brain research and psychology. Methuen. [KO]Google Scholar
O'Keefe, J. & Nadel, L. (1979) Précis of O'Keefe & Nadel's The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:487–533. [RBG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olton, D. S., Walker, J. A. & Wolf, W. A. (1982) A disconnection analysis of hippocampal function. Brain Research 233:241–53. [RBG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Optican, L. M. & Zee, D. S. (1984) A hypothetical explanation of congenital nystagmus. Biological Cybernetics 50:119–34. [BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmer, S., Rosch, E. & Chase, P. (1981) Canonical perspective and the perception of objects. In: Attention and performance 9, ed. Long, J. & Baddeley, A.. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Parker, D. E., Poston, R. L. & Gulledge, W. L. (1983) Spatial orientation: Visual-vestibular-somatic interactions. Perception and Psychophysics 33:139–45. [RNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pentland, A. P. (1984) Shading into texture. Proceedings, AAAI-84, 269–73. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Perrett, D. I., Rolls, E. T. & Caan, W. (1982) Visual neurons responsive to faces in the monkey temporal cortex. Experimental Brain Research 47:329–42. [BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phillips, W. A. & Christie, D. F. M.. (1977) Components of visual memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 29:117–34. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piaget, J. (1971) Biology and knowledge. University of Chicago Press. [PCD]Google Scholar
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1967) The child's conception of space. Norton. [taJAF, BK]Google Scholar
Plaut, D. C. (1984) A connectionist model of visual knowledge indexing. TR #143, Computer Science Dept., University of Rochester. [tarJAF]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. (1978) Chronometric explorations of mind. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF, SG]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Cohen, Y. (1984) Components of visual orienting. In: Attention and performance 10, ed. Bouma, H. & Bouwhis, D.. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Raaijmakers, J. G. W. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1981) Search of associative memory. Psychological Review 88:93–134. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ratcliff, R. (1981) A theory of order relations in perceptual matching. Psychological Review 88:552–72. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Inhoff, A. W., Morrison, R. E., Slowiaczek, M. L. & Bertera, J. J. (1981) Masking of foveal and parafoveal vision during eye fixations in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 7:167–79. [taJAF]Google ScholarPubMed
Reeves, A. & Sperling, G. (1984) Attentional theory of order information in short-term visual memory. Preprint. [SG]Google Scholar
Richmond, B. J., Wurtz, R. H. & Sato, T. (1983) Visual responses of inferior temporal neurons in awake rhesus monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology 50:1415–32. [rJAF, BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, L. G. (1965) Machine perception of three-dimensional solids. In Optical and electro-optical information processing, ed. Tippett, J. T. T. et al. MIT Press. [KO]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. A. (1981) Control of eye movements. In: Handbook of Physiology, Section 1: The Nervous System, Vol. II, Part 2, ed. Brooks, V. B.. American Physiological Society. [BJR]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. L., Goldberg, M. E. & Stanton, G. B. (1978) Parietal association cortex in the primate: Sensory mechanisms and behavioral modulations. Journal of Neurophysiology 41:910–32. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rock, I. (1983) The logic of perception. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [rJAF]Google Scholar
Rock, I. & Sigman, E. (1973) Intelligence factors in perception of form through a moving slit. Perception 2:357–69. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rockland, K. S. & Pandya, D. N. (1979) Laminar origins and terminations of cortical connections of the occipital lobe in the rhesus monkey. Brain Research 179:3–20. [BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roland, P. E., Skinhoj, E., Lassen, N. A. & Larsen, B. (1980) Different cortical areas in man in organization of voluntary movements in extrapersonal space. Journal of Neurophysiology 43:137–50. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryle, G. (1949) The concept of mind. Hutchinson. [PCD]Google Scholar
Sabbah, D. (1981) Design of a highly parallel visual recognition system. Proceedings, 7th IJCAI. Vancouver, B.C. [tarJAF]Google Scholar
Sakata, H., Shibutani, H. & Kawano, K. (1980) Spatial properties of visual fixation neurons in posterior parietal association cortex of the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology 43:1654–72. [RAA, taJAF, BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiller, P. H. & Sandell, J. H. (1983) Interactions between visually and electrically elicited saccades before and after superior colliculus and frontal eye field ablations in the rhesus monkey. Experimental Brain Research 49:381–92. [rJAF, SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiller, P. H., True, S. D. & Conway, J. L. (1979) Paired stimulation of the frontal eye fields and the superior colliculus of the rhesus monkey. Brain Research 179:162–64. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlag, J. & Schlag-Rey, M. (1984) Visuomotor functions of central thalamus in monkey: 2. Unit activity related to visual events, targeting, and fixation. Journal of Neurophysiology 51:1175–95. [BJR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlag, J., Schlag-Rey, M., Peck, C. K. & Joseph, J. P. (1983) Visual responses of thalamic neurons depending on the direction of gaze and the position of targets in space. Experimental Brain Research 40:170–84. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlag-Rey, M. & Schlag, J. (1984) Visuomotor functions of central thalamus in monkey. 1. Unit activity related to spontaneous eye movements. Journal of Neurophysiology 51:1149–74. [RAA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, W. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) Controlled and automatic information processing. 1: Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review 84:1–66. [SG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, E. L., Desimone, R., Albright, T. D. & Gross, C. G. (1983) Shape recognition and inferior temporal neurons. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 80:5776–78. [rJAF, BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shastri, L. & Feldman, J. A. (1984) Semantic networks and neural nets. TR131, Computer Science Dept., University of Rochester. [tarJAF]Google Scholar
Shebilske, W. (1981) Visual direction illusions in everyday situations: Implications for sensorimotor and ecological theories. In: Eye movements: Cognition and visual perception, ed. Fisher, D. F., Monty, R. A. & Senders, J. W.. Erlbaum Associates. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. (forthcoming) Ecological constraints on internal representation: Resonant kinematics of perceiving, imagining, thinking and dreaming. Psychological Review. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. & Gooper, L. A. (1982) Mental images and their transformations. MIT Press/Bradford. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. & Metzler, J. (1971) Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science 171:701–03. [GEH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skavenski, A. A. (1976) The nature and role of extraretinal eye position information in visual localization. In: Eye movements and psychological processes, ed. Monty, R. A. & Senders, J. W.Erlbaum Associates. [RNH]Google Scholar
Smith, E. E., Shoben, E. J. & Rips, L. J. (1974) Structure and process in semantic memory: A featural model for semantic decisions. Psychological Review 81:214–41. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, D. L. & Mays, L. E. (1983) Spatial localization of saccade targets. 1. Compensation for stimulation-induced perturbations in eye position. Journal of Neurophysiology 49:45–63. [BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparks, D. L. & Porter, J. D. (1983) Spatial localization of saccade targets. II. Activity of superior colliculus neurons preceding compensatory saccades. Journal of Neurophysiology 49:64–74. [rJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sperber, R. D., McCauley, C., Ragain, R. D. & Weil, C. M. (1979) Semantic priming effects on picture and word processing. Memory and Cognition 7:339–45. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sperling, G. & Reeves, A. (1980) Measuring the reaction time of a shift of visual attention. In: Attention and performance 8, ed. Nickerson, R.. Erlbaum Associates. [SG]Google Scholar
Spigel, I. (1965) Visually perceived movement. Harpers. [RNH]Google Scholar
Sprague, J. M., Hughes, H. C. & Berlucchi, G. (1981) Cortical mechanisms in pattern and form perception. In: Brain mechanisms and perceptual awareness, ed. Pompeiano, O. & Ajmone-Marsan, C.. Raven Press. [RGB]Google Scholar
Steinman, R. M. (1976) The role of eye movement in maintaining a phenomenally clear and stable world. In: Eye movements and psychological processes, ed. Monty, R. A. & Senders, J. W.. Erlbaum Associates. [RNH]Google Scholar
Steinman, R. M. & Collewijn, H. (1980) Binocular retinal image motion during active head rotation. Vision Research 20:415–29. [RNH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sterling, P. (1983) Microcircuitry of the cat retina. Annual Review of Neuroscience 6:149–85. [BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, J., Dreher, B. & Leventhal, A. (1979) Hierarchical and parallel mechanisms in the organization of visual cortex. Brain Research Reviews 1:345–94. [RBG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teuber, H.-L. (1964) The riddle of frontal lobe function in man. In: The frontal granular cortex and behavior, ed. Warren, J. M. & Akert, K.. McGraw-Hill. [RBG]Google Scholar
Tomko, D. L., Barbara, N. M. & Ali, F. N. (1981) Effects of body tilt on receptive field orientation of simple visual cortical neurons in unanesthetized cats. Experimental Brain Research 43:309–14. [taJAF]Google ScholarPubMed
Treisman, A. (1982) The role of attention in object perception. Proceedings, The Royal Society International Symposium on Physical and Biological Processing of Images. London. [tarJAF]Google Scholar
Treisman, A. (1984) Summary of recent research results. Unpublished memorandum. University of British Columbia. [rJAF]Google Scholar
Treisman, A. (1985) Properties, parts, and objects. In: Handbook of perception and human performance, ed. Boff, K., Kaufman, L. & Thomas, J.. John Wiley & Sons. [rJAF]Google Scholar
Treisman, A. M. & Gelade, G. (1980) A feature-integration theory of attention. Cognitive Psychology 12:97–136. [RAB, taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treisman, A. M. & Schmidt, H. (1982) Illusory conjunctions in the perception of objects. Cognitive Psychology 14:107–41. [RAB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turvey, M. T. (1977) Contrasting orientations to the theory of visual information processing. Psychological Review 84:67–88. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ullman, S.Filling in the gaps: The shape of subjective contours and a model for their generation. Biological Cybernetics 25:1–6. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uttal, W. R. (1981). A taxonomy of visual processes. Erlbaum Associates. [PCD]Google Scholar
Van Essen, D. C. (1979) Visual areas of the mammalian cerebral cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience 2:227–63. [RAA]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Essen, D. C. & Maunsell, J. H. R. (1983) Hierarchical organization and functional streams in the visual cortex. Trends in Neurosciences 6:370–75. [tarJAF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Gisbergen, J. A. M., Robinson, D. A. & Gielen, S. (1981) A quantitative analysis of generation of saccadic eye movements for burst neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology 45:417–42. [BJR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
von der Heydt, R., Peterhans, E. & Baumgartner, G. (1984) Illusory contours and cortical neuron responses. Science 224:1260–62. [taJAF, SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
von Holtz, E. (1954) Relation between the central nervous system and the peripheral organs. British Journal of Animal Behavior 2:89–94. [RNH]Google Scholar
Waespe, W. & Henn, V. (1979) The early response of vestibular nucleus neurons during vestibular, visual and combined angular acceleration. Experimental Brain Research 37:337–47. [RNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weisstein, N. & Maguire, W. (1978) Computing the next step: Psychological measures of representation and interpretation. In: Computer vision systems, ed. Hanson, A. R. & Riseman, E. M.. Academic Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Welch, R. B. (1978) Perceptual modification: Adapting to altered sensory environments. Academic Press. [taJAF]Google Scholar
Welker, W. I., ed. (1976) Neocortical mapping studies. Brain, Behavior, and Evolution 13:241–343. [RBG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wickelgren, W. A. (1979) Chunking and consolidation: A theoretical synthesis of semantic networks, configuring in conditioning, S-R versus cognitive learning, normal forgetting, the amnesic syndrome, and the hippocampal arousal system. Psychological Review 86:44–60. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willshaw, D. J. & Malsburg, C. von der. (1976) How patterned neural connections can be set up by self-organization. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (B) 194:431–45. [SG]Google ScholarPubMed
Wilson, H. R. & Bergen, J. R. (1979) A four mechanism model for spatial vision. Vision Research 19:19–32. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winograd, S. & Cowan, J. D. (1963) Reliable computations in the presence of noise. MIT Press. [KO]Google Scholar
Witkin, A. P. & Tenenbaum, J. M. (1983) On the role of structure in vision. In: Human and machine vision, ed. Beck, J., Hope, B. & Rosenfeld, A.. Academic Press. [tarJAF]Google Scholar
Zeki, S. M. (1975) The function organization of projections from striate to prestriate visual cortex in the rhesus monkey. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 40:591–600. [BJR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeki, S. M. (1980) The representation of colours in the cerebral cortex. Nature 284:412–18. [taJAF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeki, S. M. (1983a) Colour coding in the cerebral cortex: The reaction of cells in monkey visual cortex to wavelengths and colours. Neuroscience 9:741–65. [rJAF, SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeki, S. M. (1983b) Colour coding in the cerebral cortex: The responses of wavelength-selective and colour coded cells in monkey visual cortex to changes in wavelength composition. Neuroscience 9:767–91. [rJAF, SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zucker, S. W. (1984) Type I and type II processes in early orientation selection. In: Figural synthesis, ed. Caelli, T. & Dodwell, P.. Erlbaum Associates. [SWZ]Google Scholar