Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T01:47:01.522Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Against direct perception

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

S. Ullman
S. Ullman
Affiliation:
Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. 02139
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Central to contemporary cognitive science is the notion that mental processes involve computations defined over internal representations. This view stands in sharp contrast to the “direct approach” to visual perception and cognition, whose most prominent proponent has been J.J. Gibson. In the direct theory, perception does not involve computations of any sort; it is the result of the direct pickup of available information. The publication of Gibson's recent book (Gibson 1979) offers an opportunity to examine his approach, and, more generally, to contrast the theory of direct perception with the computational/representational view. In the first part of the present article (Sections 2–3) the notion of “direct perception” is examined from a theoretical standpoint, and a number of objections are raised. Section 4 is a “case study”: the problem of perceiving the three-dimensional shape of moving objects is examined. This problem, which has been extensively studied within the immediate perception framework, serves to illustrate some of the inherent shortcomings of that approach. Finally, in Section 5, an attempt is made to place the theory of direct perception in perspective by embedding it in a more comprehensive framework.

Keywords

artificial intelligencecomputational modelsdirect perceptionecological opticsGibsonian theoryinformation pickupvisual representation
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 3 , Issue 3 , September 1980 , pp. 373 - 381
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1980

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Attneave, F. (1972) Representation of physical space. In: Coding processes in human memory, ed. Melton, A. W. & Martin, E., Washington, D.C.: V.H.Winston & Sons. [SU]Google Scholar
Attneave, F & Frost, R. (1969) The determination of perceived tridimensional orientation by minimum criteria. Perception and Psychophysics 6(6B):391–96. [SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barlow, H. B. (1972) Single units and sensation: A neuron doctrine for perceptual psychology. Perception 1:371–94. [OJB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrow, H. G. & Tenenbaum, J. M. (1978) Recovering intrinsic scene characteristics from images. In: Computer vision systems, ed. Hanson, A. R. & Riseman, E. M.. New York: Academic Press. [GEH]Google Scholar
Bentley, D., & Hoy, R. R. (1974) The neurobiology of cricket song. Scientific American 231:34–44, 08 [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, N. (1967) The co-ordination and regulation of movements. New York: Pergamon Press. [WMM]Google Scholar
Blaivas, A. S. (1975) Visual analysis: theory of lie group representations. Mathematical Biosciences 28:45–67. [JWG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, B. (1948) A set of postulates for phonemic analysis. Language 24:3–46. [SJK]Google Scholar
Block, B. (1950) Studies in colloquial Japanese IV: phonemics. Language 26:86–125. [SJK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braunstein, M. L. (1962) Depth perception in rotating dot patterns: effects of numerosity and perspective. Journal of Experimental Psychology 64(4):415–70. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breitmeyer, B. G. & Ganz, L. (1976) Implications of sustained and transient channels for theories of visual pattern masking, saccadic suppression and information processing. Psychological Review 83:1–36. [GRL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bridgeman, B.; Hendry, D.; & Stark, L. (1975) Failure to detect displacement of the visual world during saccadic eye movements. Vision Research 15:719–22. [BB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, J. F. (1931) The visual perception of velocity. Psychologische Forschung 14:199–232. [IR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caelli, T. M., & Julesz, B. (1978) On perceptual analyzers underlying visual texture discrimination: part I. Biological Cybernetics 28:167–75. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, F. W. & Robson, J. G. (1968) Application of Fourier analysis to the visibility of gratings. Journal of Physiology – London 197:551–66. [SU]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1957) Review of R. Jakobson and M. Halle's Fundamentals of Language. International Journal of American Linguistics 23:234–41. [SJK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1959) A review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior. In: The structure of language, ed. Fodor, J. A. & Karz, J. J.. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall (1964). [SU]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1964) Current issues in linguistic theory. In: The structure of language: Readings in the Philosophy of Language, ed. Fodor, J. A. and Katz, J.J.; Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [SJK]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. & Halle, M. (1968) The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper and Row. [SJK]Google Scholar
Coren, S.; Ward, L.; Porac, C.; & Fraser, R. (1978) The effect of optical blur on visual-geometric illusions. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 11(6):390–92. [SWZ]Google Scholar
Dember, W. N. & Purcell, D. G. (1967) Recovery of masked visual targets by inhibition of the masking stimulus. Science 157:1335–36. [GRL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennett, D. C. (1979) Brainstorms. Montgomery, Vermont: Bradford Books. [AS]Google Scholar
Dewey, J. & Bentley, A. F. (1949) Knowing and the known. Boston: Beacon. [SSP]Google Scholar
Dodwell, P. C. (1970) Visual pattern recognition. New York: Holt, Rinhart & Winston. [KP]Google Scholar
Eden, M. (1962) A three-dimensional optical illusion. Quarterly Progress Report no. 64 M.I.T.R.L.E. 267–74. [SU]Google Scholar
Epstein, W. (1973) the process of “taking-into-account” in visual perception. Perception 2:267–85. [WE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, W. (ed.) (1977a) Stability and constancy in visual perception: mechanisms and processes. New York: Wiley-Interscience. [WE]Google Scholar
Epstein, W. (ed.) (1977b) What are the prospects for a higher-order stimulus theory of perception? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 18:164–71. [WE, SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, W. (ed.) (1979) In the eye of the beholder. Psychological Studies 24:82–97. [WE]Google Scholar
Epstein, W. (ed.) (In prep.) The relationship between texture gradient and perceived slant-in-depth. [WE]Google Scholar
Epstein, W. & Hatfield, G. (1978) The locus of masking shape-at-a-slant. Perception and Psychophysics 24(6):501–4. [WE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, W.; Hatfield, G.; & Muise, G. (1977) Perceived shape at a slant as a function of processing time and processing load. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 3:473–83. [WE]Google Scholar
Epstein, W. & Park, J. (1963) Shape constancy: functional relationships and theoretical formulations. Psychological Bulletin 60:265–88. [WE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, W. & Park, J. (1964) Examination of Gibson's psychophysical hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin 62:180–96. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eriksson, E. S. (1974) A theory of veridical space perception. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 15:225–35. [SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, R. M. (1948) Introduction to color. New York: Wiley. [CBZ]Google Scholar
Evarts, E. V. (1971) Feedback as corollary discharge: a merging of the concepts. Neurosciences Research Program Bulletin 9(1):86–112. [JWG]Google ScholarPubMed
Farber, J. M. & McConkie, A. B. (1979) Optical motion as information for unssigned depth. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Psychophysics 5(3):494–500. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fehrer, E. & Raab, D. (1962) Reaction time to stimuli masked by metacontrast. Journal of Experimental Psychology 63:143–47. [GRL]Google Scholar
Gibson, E. J. (1969) Perceptual learning and development. New York: Appleton-Gentury-Crofts. [IR]Google Scholar
Gibson, E. J. (1977) How perception really develops: a view from outside the network. In: Basic processess in reading, ed. LaBerge, D. & Samuels, S. J.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [WE]Google Scholar
Gibson, E. J.; Gibson, J. J.; Smith, O. W.; & Flock, H. (1959) Motion parallax as a determinant of perceived depth. Journal of Experimental Psychology 8(1):40–51. [SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, E. J.; Owsley, C. J.; & Johnston, J. (1978) Perception of invariants by five-month-old infants: differentiation of two types of motion. Developmental Psychology 14(4):407–15. [SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1950) The perception of the visual world. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [JR. SU, KvF, CBZ]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1954) The visual perception of objective motion and subjective movement. Psychological Review 61(5):304–14. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, J. J. (1957) Optical motions and transformations as stimuli for visual perception. Psychological Review 64(5):288–95. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, J. J. (1958) Visually controlled locomotion and visual orientation in animals. British Journal of Psychology 49:182–94. [WMM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, J. J. (1959) Perception as a function of stimulation. In: Psychology: a study of a science, vol. 1., ed. Koch, S., New York, Toronto, London: McGraw-Hill. [ESR, RS, SU]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1960) The concept of the stimulus in psychology. American Psychologist 15:694–703. [SU]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1961) Ecological optics. Vision Research 1:253–62. [SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1963) The useful dimensions of sensitivity. American Psychologist 18:1–15. [ESR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1965) Research on the visual perception of motion and change. In: Spigel, , I. 125–46. [SU]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1966) The senses considered as perceptual systems. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [BB, WE, KvF, WMM, ESR, IR, SU]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1967) New reasons for realism. Synthese 17:162–72. [SG, SU]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1968) What gives rise to the perception of motion? Psychological Review 75(4):335–46. [ESR, SU]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1968–1969) Are there sensory qualities of objects? Synthese 19:408–9. [SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1970) On theories for visual space perception: a reply to Johansson. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 11:73–79. [ESR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, J. J. (1972) A theory of direct visual perception. In: The psychology of knowing, ed. Royce, J. R. & Rozeboom, W. W.. New York, Paris, London: Gordon & Breach. [GRL, SU]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1976) The myth of passive perception: a reply to Richards. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 37:234–38. [RJK, ESR]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [SG, RKJ, WMM, AKM, SSP, ESR, IR, RS, SU, CBZ]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. & Gibson, E. J. (1957) Continuous perspective tranformations and the perception of rigid motion. Journal of Experimental Psychology 54(2):129–38. [SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J.; Kaplan, G.; Reynolds, H. N.; & Wheeler, K. (1969) The change from visible to invisible: a study of optical transitions. Perception and Psychophysics 5:113–16. [WMM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J.; Olum, P.; & Rosenblatt, F. (1955) Parallax and perspective during aircraft landings. American Journal of Psychology 68:372–85. [WMM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilchrist, A. (1977) Perceived lightness depends on perceived spatial arrangement. Science 195:185–87. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ginzburg, A. (1971) Psychological correlates of a model of the human visual system. Proceedings of the National Electronics Conference, IEEE:283–90. [SWZ]Google Scholar
Gregory, R. (1972) Seeing as thinking. Times Literary Supplement (06 23):707–8 [KP]Google Scholar
Gregory, R. (1974) Choosing a paradigm for perception. In: Handbook of perception. Vol. 1, Historical and philosophical roots of perception, ed. Carterette, E. C. and Friedman, M. P.. New York: Academic Press. [WE]Google Scholar
Gregory, R. (1979) Perceptual hypotheses. In: The psychology of vision, ed. Longuet Higgins, H. C. & Sutherland, N. S.Royal Society of London symposium on vision (in press). [KP]Google Scholar
Griffin, D. R. (1978) Prospects for a cognitive ethology. Brain and Behavioral Sciences 1(4):527–38. [SU]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1976a) Adaptive pattern classification and universal recoding, I: parallel development and coding of neural feature detectors. Biological Cybernetics 23:121–34. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1976b) Adaptive pattern classification and universal recoding, II: feedback, expectation, olfaction, and illusions. Biological Cybernetics 23:187–202. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1978) A theory of human memory: self-organization and perfomance of sensory-motor codes, maps, and plans. In: Progress in theoretical biology, vol. 5, ed. Rosen, R. & Snell, F.. New York: Academic Press. [SG]Google Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1980) How does a brain build a cognitive code? Psychological Review 87:1–51. [SG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gyr, J. W. (1972a) Is a theory of direct visual perception adequate? Psychological Bulletin 77:246–61. [SU]Google Scholar
Gyr, J. W. (1972b) Comments on Gibson's paper. In: The psychology of knowing, ed. Royce, J. R. & Rozeboom, W. W.. New York, Paris, London: Gordon & Breach. [SU]Google Scholar
Gyr, J.; Willey, R.; & Henry, A. (1979) Motor-sensory feedback and geometry of visual space: a replication. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:59–64. [JWG, SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, C. J. (1966) Optical motions and space perception – and extension of Gibson's analysis. Psychological Review 73:550–65. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayek, F. A. (1969) The primary of the abstract. In: Beyond reductionism, ed. Koestler, A. & Smythies, J. R., pp. 309–33. New York: Macmillan. [WBW]Google Scholar
Hayes-Roth, F. (1977) Critique of Turvey's “Contrasting orientations to the theory of visual information processing.” Psychological Review 531–35. [FHR]Google Scholar
Hecht, S. (1934) Vision II. the nature of the photoreceptor process. In: A handbook of general experimental psychology, ed. Murchinson, C.. Worcester: Clark University Press. [GRL]Google Scholar
Helmholtz, H. von, (1963) Treatise on physiological optics, ed. South, J. P. C.-all. New York: Dover. [BB, WE, SWZ]Google Scholar
Henle, M. (1974) On naive realism. In: Perception: essays in honor of James J. Gibson, ed. Macleod, R. B. & Pick, H. L. Jr. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Hill, A. L. (1972) Direction constancy. Perception and Psychophysics 11:175–78. [IR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinton, G. (1979) Some demonstration of the effects of structural descriptions in mental imagery. Cognitive Science 3:231–50. [SU]Google Scholar
Hochberg, J. (1974) Higher-order stimuli and inter-response coupling in the perception of the visual world. In: Perception: essays in honor of James J. Gibson, ed. Macleod, R. B. & Pick, H.L. Jr. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Hochberg, J. & McAlister, A. (1953) A quantitative approach to figural “goodness.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 46:361–64. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffman, W. C. (1966) The lie-algebra of visual perception. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 3:65–98. [J WG]Google Scholar
Hoffman, W. C. (1977) An informal, historical description (with bibliography) of the “L.T.G./N.P.” Cahiers de Psychologie 20:135–74. [KvF]Google Scholar
Jansson, G. & Johansson, G. (1973) Visual perception of bending motion. Perception 2:321–26. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johannson, G. (1964) Perception of motion and changing form. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 5:181–208. [SU, KvF]Google Scholar
Johannson, G. (1970) On theories for visual space perception – a letter to Gibson. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 11:67–74. [SU, KvF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johansson, G.; Von Hofsten, C.; & Jansson, G. (1980) Event perception. Annual Review of Psychology 31:27–63. [GJ]Google Scholar
Julesz, B. (1971) Foundations of Cyclopean perception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Julesz, B. & Caelli, T. (1979) On the limits of fourier decomposition in visual texture perception. Perception 8:69–73. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Julesz, B. & Miller, J. (1975) Independent spatial-frequency-tuned channels in binocular fusion and rivalry. Perception 4:125–43. [SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, D. (1967) An onset-onset law for one case of apparent motion and metacontrast. Perception and Psychophysics 2:577–84. [GRL]Google Scholar
Kaila, Eino (1979) Reality and experience. In: Four philosophical essays ed., Cohen, R. S.. Dordrecht, Boston, London: Reidel. [KvF]Google Scholar
Kalil, R. E. & Freedman, S. J. (1966) Persistence of ocular rotation following compensation for displaced vision. Perceptual & Motor Skills 22:135–39. [IR]Google Scholar
Kanizsa, G. (1955) Margini quasi-percettivi in campi con stimolazione omogenea. Rivista di Psicologia 49:7–30. [IR]Google Scholar
Kant, Immanuel (1781) Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Smith, N. K. (1929). London: Macmillan. [AS]Google Scholar
Kantor, J. R. (1920) Suggestions toward a scientific interpretation of perception. Psychological Review 27:191–216. [SSR]Google Scholar
Kaplan, G. A. (1969) Kinetic disruption of optical texture: the perception of depth at an edge. Perception & Psychophysics 6:193–98. [IR]Google Scholar
Kelly, D. H. (1979a) Motion and vision. 1. Stabilized images of stationary gratings. Journal of the Opticals sociaty America 69(9):1266–74. [KP]Google Scholar
Kelly, D. H. (1979b) Motion and vision. 2. Stabilized spatio-temporal threshold surface. Journal of the Optical Society of America 69(10):1340–49. [KP]Google Scholar
Kling, J. W. & Riggs, L. A. (1972) Experimental Psychology. New York: Holt, inehart & Winston. [GRL]Google Scholar
Knudsen, F. (1974) Stereohinese. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. [KvF]Google Scholar
Koenderink, J. J. & van Doom, A. J. (1975) Invariant properties of the motion parallax field due to the movement of rigid bodies relative to an observer. Optica Acta 22(9):773–91. [KP]Google Scholar
Koenderink, J. J. & van Doom, A. J. (1976) Local structure of movement parallax of the plane. Journal of the Optical Society of America 66(7):717–23. [KP]Google Scholar
Koenderink, J. J. & van Doom, A. J. (1977) How an ambulant observer can construct a model of the environment from the geometrical structure of the visual inflow. Kybernetik 77:224–47. [KP]Google Scholar
Koenderink, J. J. & van Doom, A. J. (1979) The internal representation of solid shape with respect to vision. Biological Cybernetics. 32:211–16. [KP]Google Scholar
Koffka, K. (1935) Principles of Gestalt psychology. New York: Hareourt, Brace, and World. [IR, SU]Google Scholar
Köhler, W. (1947) Gestalt psychology. New York: Liveright Publishing Corp. [IR]Google Scholar
Kosslyn, S. M. (in press) Image and Mind. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Kugler, P. N.; Turvey, M. T.; & Shaw, R. (forthcoming) Is the “cognitive penetrability” criterion invalidated by contemporary physics? Behavioral and Brain Sciences. [SSP]Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. (1962) The structure of scientific revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [SWZ]Google Scholar
Lee, D. N. (1974) Visual information during locomotion. In: Perception: essays in honor of James J. Gibson, ed. MacLeod, R. B. & Pick, H. L.. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. [RS]Google Scholar
Lee, D. N. (1976) A theory of visual control of braking based on information about time-to-collision. Perception 5:437–56. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, D. N. (1980) Visuo-motor coordination in space-time. In: Tutorials and motor behavior, ed. Stelmach, G. & Requin, J.. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing. [RJK, SSP]Google Scholar
Lee, D. N. (in press) The optic flow field: The foundation of vision. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. [RKJ]Google Scholar
Liberman, A. M.; Cooper, F. S.; Shankweiler, D. P.; & Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1967) Perception of the speech code. Psychological Review 74:431–61. [SJK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindsay, P. H. & Norman, D. A. (1972) Human information processing. New York and London: Academic Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Longuet-Higgins, H. C. & Prazdny, K. (in press) The interpretation of a moving retinal image. Proceddings of the Royal Society – London. [SU]Google Scholar
Luria, A. (1973) The working brain. Harmondsworth: Penguin. [ESR]Google Scholar
Mach, Ernst. (1897) The analysis of sensations. New York: Dover. [SU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mace, W. M. (1977) James Gibson's strategy for perceiving: ask not what's in your head, but what your head is inside of. In: Perceiving, acting and knowing: towards an ecological psychology, ed. Shaw, R. & Bransford, J.. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum. [ESR]Google Scholar
Mack, A. (1970) An investigation of the relationship between eye and retinal image movement in the perception of movement. Perception and Psychophysics 8:291–98. [BB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mack, A. (1979) Nonvisual determinants of perception. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2(1):75. [SU]Google Scholar
Mackworth, A. K. (1976) Model-driven interpretation in intelligent vision systems. Perception 5:349–70. [AKM]Google Scholar
Marcel, A. (in press) Conscious and unconscious perception: visual masking, word recognition and an approach to consciousness. Cognitive Psychology. [GRL]Google Scholar
Marmolin, H. (1973) Visually perceived motion in depth resulting from proximal changes. Perception and Psychophysics 14(1):133–48. [SU]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1976) Early processing of visual information. Philosphical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 275(942)483–534. [SU, SWZ]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1977) Artificial intelligence – a personal view. Artificial Intelligence 9:37–48. [SU]Google Scholar
Marr, D. & Nishihara, K. (1978) Representation and recognition of the spatial organization of three-dimensional shapes. Proceedings of the Royal Society – London B 200:269–94. [SU]Google Scholar
Marr, D.; Palm, G.; & Poggio, T. (1978) Analysis of a cooperative stereo algorithm. Biological Cybernetics 28:223–39. [JFD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marr, D. & Poggio, T. (1976) Cooperative computation of stereo disparity. Science 194:283–87. [JFD, GEH]Google Scholar
Marr, D. & Poggio, T. (1977) From understanding computation to understanding neural circuitry. Neuroscience Research Program Bulletin 15(3):470–88. [SU]Google Scholar
Marr, D. & Poggio, T. (1979) A computational theory of human stereo vision. Proceedings of the Royal Society – London B 204:301–28. [SU]Google Scholar
Masterton, R. B. & Berkley, M. A. (1974) Brain function: changing ideas on the rolè of sensory, motor and association cortex in behavior. Annual Review of Psychology 25:277–312. [ESR]Google Scholar
Metzger, W. (1930) Optische untersuchungen im Ganzfeld II. Psychologische Forschung. 13:6–29. [RKJ]Google Scholar
Metzger, W. (1972) Critical remarks to J. J. Gibson's conception of “direct” visual perception, i.e., of revived prephysiological realism. In: The psychology of knowing, ed. Royce, J. R. & Rozeboom, W. W., New York, Paris, London: Gordon & Breach. [SU]Google Scholar
Meyer, D. E. & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971) Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology 90:227–34. [GRL]Google Scholar
Michaels, C. F. & Carello, C. (in press) The theory of direct perception. New York: Prentice-Hall. [SSP]Google Scholar
Minsky, M. (1967) Computation: finite and infinite machines. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. [RS]Google Scholar
Minsky, M. (1968) Matter, mind and models. In: Semantic information processing. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. [AS]Google Scholar
Minsky, M. (1975) A framework for representing knowledge. In: The psychology of computer vision, ed. Winston, P. H.. New York: McGraw-Hill. [WE, KP]Google Scholar
Mochotte, A. (1963) The perception of causality. London: Methuen. [CBZ]Google Scholar
Müller, G. E. (1924) Abriss der psychologie Göttingen. [KvF]Google Scholar
Musatti, C. L. (1924) Sui fenomeni stereocinetici. Archivio Italiano Psicologia 3:105–20. [IR, CBZ]Google Scholar
Neff, W. S. (1936) A critical investigation of the visual apprehension of movement. American Journal of Psychology 48:1–42. [SU]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1976) Cognition and reality. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company. [SG, SU, SWZ]Google Scholar
Oatley, K. (1978) Computational metaphors for perception. In: Perception (Part 2). Course in cognitive psychology. Milton Keynes: Open University. [KP]Google Scholar
Pattee, H. H. (1971) Physical theories of biological co-ordination. Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics 4:255–76. [WMM]Google Scholar
Pattee, H. H. (1974) Discrete and continuous processes in computers and brains. In: Lecture notes in bio-mathematics 4: physics and mathematics of the nervous system, ed. Conrad, M., Güttinger, W., & Cin, M. Dal. New York: Springer-Verlag. [WMM]Google Scholar
Pattee, H. H. (1977) Dynamic and linguistic modes of complex systems. International Journal of General Systems 8:259–66. [SSP]Google Scholar
Patten, B. C. (1979) Environs: relativistic elementary particles for ecology. Paper presented at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn. [SSP, RS]Google Scholar
Pittenger, J. B.; Shaw, R. E.; & Mark, L. S. (1979) Perceptual information for the age of faces as higher order invariances of growth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Performance and Psychophysics 5(3):478–93. [SSP, SU]Google ScholarPubMed
Polyak, S. L. (1957) The vertebrate visual system. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Prazdny, K. (1980) The information in optical flow. Artificial Intelligence Journal (submitted for publication). [KP]Google Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z. (1976) Imagery and artificial intelligence. In: Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science, vol. 9, ed. Savage, W.. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z. (1978) Computational models and empirical constraints. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1(1):93–99. [SU]Google Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z. (1980) Computation and cognition: issues in the foundations of cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:111–69. [GEH, SSP]Google Scholar
Resile, F. (1979) Coding theory of the perception of motion configurations. Psychological Review 86(1):l–24. [SU]Google Scholar
Richards, W. & Polit, A. (1974) Texture matching. Kybernetic 16:1299–1302. [SU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rock, I. (1977) In defense of unconscious inference. In: Stability and constancy in visual perception, ed. Epstein, W., pp. 321–73. New York: Wiley. [WE, GJ]Google Scholar
Rock, I. (in press) Alternative solutions to kinetic stimulus transformations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. [SU]Google Scholar
Rock, I. & Ebenholtz, S. (1959) The relational determination of perceived size. Psychological Review 66:387–401. [IR]Google Scholar
Rock, I. & Gilchrist A. (1975) The conditions for the perception of the covering and uncovering of a line. American Journal of Psychology 88:571–82. [IR]Google Scholar
Rock, I.; Hill, A. L.; & Fineman, M. (1968) Speed constancy as a function of size constancy. Perception Psychophysics 4:37–40. [IR]Google Scholar
Rock, I.; Shallo, J.; & Schwartz, F. (1978) Pictorial depth and related constancy effects as a function of recognition. Perception 7:3–19. [CBZ]Google Scholar
Rock, I. & Sigman, E. (1973) Intelligence factors in the perception of form through a moving slit. Perception 2:357–69. [WE]Google Scholar
Runeson, S. (1977) On the possibility of “smart” perceptual mechanisms. Scan dinavian Journal of Psychology 18:172–79. [ESR, SR]Google Scholar
Schalz, C. (1954) The role of context in the perception of stops. Language 30:47–56. [SJK]Google Scholar
Sehiller, P. H. & Chorover, S. L. (1966) Metacontrasl: its relation to evoked potentials. Science 153:1398–1401. [GRL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schrödinger, E. (1967) Mind and mailer In: What is life? & mind and matter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [SG, SU, WBW]Google Scholar
Shaw, R. & Bransford, J., eds. (1977a) Perceiving, acting, and knowing. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [KP]Google Scholar
Shaw, R. & Bransford, J., eds. (1977b) Psychological approaches to the problem of knowledge. In: Perceiving, acting, and knowing, ed. Shaw, R. & Bransford, J.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [WMM, RS]Google Scholar
Shaw, R. & McIntyre, M. (1974) Algoristic foundations for cognitive psychology. In: Cognition and the symbolic processes, ed. Palermo, D. & Weimer, W.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [SR]Google Scholar
Shaw, R.; Mclntyre, M.; & Mace, W. (1974) The role of symmetry in event perception. In: Perception: essays in honor of James J. Gibson, ed. Macleod, R. B. & Pick, H. L. Jr. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Shaw, R. & Turvey, M. (in press) Coalitions as models for ecosystems: a realist perspective on perceptual organization. In: Perceptual organization, ed. Kubovy, M. and Pomerantz, J., pp. 1–39. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [SSR, RS]Google Scholar
Shaw, R.; Turvey, M.; & Mace, W. (in press) Ecological psychology: the consequences of a commitment to realism. In Cognition and symbolic processes, vol. 2, ed. Weimer, W. & Palermo, D.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [WMM, SSP, RS]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. (1975) Form, formation, and transformation of internal representations. In: Information processing and cognition: the Loyola symposium, ed. Solo, R.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [SU]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. (1978) The mental image. American Psychologist 33:125–37. [SU]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. & Metzler, J. (1971) Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science 171:701–3. [SU]Google Scholar
Sigman, E. & Rock, I. (1974) Stroboscopic motion based on perceptual intelligence. Perception 3:9–28. [WE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, H. A. (1969) The sciences of the artificial. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. [GEH]Google Scholar
Sloman, A. (1978) The computer revolution in philosophy: philosophy science and models of mind. Sussex: Harvester Press and Humanities Press. [AS]Google Scholar
Sloman, A. & Owen, D. (1980) Why visual systems process sketches. In: Proceedings AISB Conference, ed. Hardy, S.. Amsterdam. [AS]Google Scholar
Smith, N. W. (1971) Aristotle's dynamic approach to sensing and some current implications. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 7:375–77. [SSP]Google Scholar
Smith, N. W. (1974) The ancient background to Greek psychology and some implications for today. Psychological Record 24:309–24. [SSP]Google Scholar
Snellen, J. W. (1973) Set point and exercise. In: Essays on temperature regulation, ed. Bligh, J. & Moore, R. E.. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing. [SSP]Google Scholar
Sutherland, N. S. (1979) The representation of three-dimensional objects. Nature 278:395–98. [SU]Google Scholar
Taylor, J. G. (1962) The behavioral basis of perception. New Haven: Yale University Press. [SU]Google Scholar
Thatcher, R. W. & John, E. R. (1977) Foundations of cognitive processes. Hillsdale. N.J.: Erlbaum. [SU]Google Scholar
Titchener, E. B. (1926) A textbook of psychology. New York: Macmillan. [IR]Google Scholar
Tondeur, P. (1965) Introduction to the lie groups and transformation groups. Heidelberg: Springer. [KvF]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1976) On peripheral and central processes in vision: inferences from an information-processing analysis of masking with patterned stimuli. Psychological Review 80:1–52. [GRL]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1977) Contrasting orientations to the theory of visual information processing. Psychological Review 84(1):67–88. [WE, FHR, SU]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1979) The thesis of efference-mediation of vision cannot be rationalized. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2(1):81–83. [SU]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. & Shaw, R. (1979) The primacy of perceiving: An ecological reformulation for understanding memory. In: Perspectives on memory research: essays in honor of Uppsala University's 500th anniversary, ed. Nillson, L. G.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [SSP, RS]Google Scholar
Turvey, M.; Shaw, R.; & Mace, W. (1978) Issues in the theory of action: degrees of freedom, coordinative structures and coalitions. In: Attention and performance VII, ed. Requin, J.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [WMM, SSP, RS]Google Scholar
Ullman, S. (1978a) Artificial intelligence systems and human cognition: the missing link. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1(1):117–19. [SU]Google Scholar
Ullman, S. (1978b) Mental representations and mental experiences. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1:605–6. [SU]Google Scholar
Ullman, S. (1979a) The interpretation of structure from motion. Proceedings of the Royal Society – London B 203:405–26. [SU]Google Scholar
Ullman, S. (1979b) The interpretation of visual motion. Cambridge and London: MIT Press. [RS. SU]Google Scholar
Ullman, S. (1979c) Relaxation and constrained optimization by local processes. Computer graphics and image processing 9(6):115–25. [SU]Google Scholar
von Fieandt, K. (1966) The world of perception. Chicago: Dorsey Press. [KvF]Google Scholar
von Fieandt, K. (1975) Experimentell analys av stereoeffekter med skuggfigurer i plan. Nordisk Psykologi 27. [KvF]Google Scholar
von Fieandt, K. & Gibson, J. J. (1959) The sensitivity of the eye to two kinds of continuous transformations of a shadow-pattern. Journal of Experimental Psychology 57:344–47. [KvF, SU]Google Scholar
von Fieandt, K. & Moustgaard, I. K. (1977) The perceptual world. London, New York, & San Francisco: Academic Press. [KvF]Google Scholar
Wall, P. D. (1970) The sensory and motor role of impulses travelling in the dorsal columns towards cerebral cortex. Brain 93:505–24. [ESR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallach, H. (1948) Brightness, constancy and the nature of achromatic colors. Journal of Experimental Psychology 38:210–24. [IR]Google Scholar
Wallach, H. (1976) On perception. New York: Quadrangle. [CBZ]Google Scholar
Wallach, H. (in press) The perception of a stable environment. Scientific American. [CBZ]Google Scholar
Wallach, H. & O'Connell, D. N. (1953) The kinetic depth effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology 45(4):205–17. [SU]Google Scholar
Wallach, H.; O'Connell, D. N.; & Neisser, U. (1953) The memory effect of visual perception of three-dimensional form. Journal of Experimental Psychology 45:360–68. [IR]Google Scholar
Watson, B. A. & Nachmias, J. (1977) Patterns of temporal interaction in the detection of gratings. Vision Research 17:893–902. [SU]Google Scholar
Werner, J. (1977) Mathematical treatment of structure and function of the human thermoregulatory system. Biological Cybernetics 25:93–101. [SSP]Google Scholar
Wheatstone, C. (1838) Contributions to the physiology of vision. Part I. On some remarkable, and hitherto unobserved, phenomena of binocular vision. Royal Society of London Philosophical Transactions 128:371–94. [CBZ]Google Scholar
Wilson, H. R. (1978) Quantitative characterization of two types of line spread function near the fovea. Vision Research 18:493–96. [SU]Google Scholar
Wilson, H. R. & Bergen, J. R. (1979) A four mechanism model for spatial vision. Vision Research 19:19–32. [SU]Google Scholar
Wilkin, H. A. & Asch, S. E. (1948) Studies in space orientation, III. Perception of the upright in the absence of a visual field. Journal of Experimental Psychology 38:603–14. [IR]Google Scholar
Woodbridge, F. J. E. (1909) Consciousness, the sense organs, and the nervous system. Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Method 7:449–55. [SSP]Google Scholar
Yates, F. E. (1979) Physical biology: a basis for modeling living systems. Journal of Cybernetics and Information Science. [SSP]Google Scholar
Yates, F. E. (1980) Systems analysis of hormone action: principles and strategies. In: Biological regulation and development. Vol. 8: Hormone action, ed. Goldberger, R. F.. New York: Plenum. [SSP]Google Scholar
Yates, F. E.; Marsh, D. J.; & Iberall, A. S. (1973) Integration of the whole organism – a foundation for a theoretical biology. In: Challenging biological problems: directions toward their solution, ed. Behnke, J. A.. New York: Oxford University Press. [SSP]Google Scholar
Yolton, J. W. (1968–1969) Gibson's realism. Synthese 19:400–7. [SU]Google Scholar
Zaretsky, M. D. (1971) Patterned response to song in cricket central auditory neurone. Nature 229:195–96. [SU]Google Scholar
Zavelishin, N. V. & Tenenbaum, L. A. (1968) Control processes in the respiratory system. Automatikai Telemekhanika 9:106–22. [SSP]Google Scholar
Zucker, S. (1980) Motion and the Mueller-Lyer illusion, Technical Report 80–2R, Department of Electrical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal. [SWZ]Google Scholar