¹ The comprehensive footnotes in George, Barany, “Hungary from Aristocratic to Proletarian Nationalism,” in Nationalism in Eastern Europe, ed. Sugar, Peter F. and Lederer, Ivo J. (Seattle, Wash., 1969,1994), 259–309,Google Scholar add up to a perfect bibliography of Hungarian nationalism.Google Scholar

² Two of Seton-Watson's, three studies on the subject were published in London in 1908. These are Political Persecution in Hungary: An Appeal to British Public Opinion and Racial Problems in Hungary.Google Scholar The most influential study was published in 1911: Corruption and Reform in Hungary: A Study of Electoral Practices. His Absolutism in Croatia (London, 1912) is also relevant.Google Scholar

³ Király, Béla K., Hungary in the Late Eighteenth Century: The Decline of Enlightened Despotism (New York, 1969), 37;Google Scholar Horst, Haselsteiner, Joseph II und die Komitate Ungarns (Vienna, 1983), 18.Google Scholar

⁴ Macartney, C. A., Hungary: A Short History (Chicago, 1962), 111,Google Scholar states that at the end of the eighteenth century only 108 Hungarian families belonged to the titled nobility—2 princes, 82 counts, and 24 barons.Google Scholar Haselsteiner, , Joseph II, 19, estimates the number of magnate families to be between 200 and 300.Google Scholar On the Habsburgs's, policy of raising middle-level nobles to the rank of titled nobility, see Zsigmond Pál Pach, gen. ed., Magyarország története tiz kötetben (The history of Hungary in ten volumes), vol. 4:Google Scholar Magyarország története, 1686–1790, ed. Győző Ember and Gusztáv Heckenast, 2 vols., 1:683, 703.Google Scholar

⁵ Haselsteiner, , Joseph II, 22.Google Scholar

⁶ Some of my previous treatments of this subject are “External and Domestic Roots of Eastern European Nationalism,” in Nationalism in Eastern Europe, ed. Sugar and Lederer, 3–54;Google Scholar the introduction and “Nationalism, the Victorious Ideology,” in Eastern European Nationalism in the Twentieth Century, ed. Sugar, Peter F. (Washington, D.C., 1995), 1–20, 413–30;Google Scholar and “From Ethnicity to Nationalism and Back Again,” in Nationalism: Essays in Honor of Louis L. Snyder, ed. Michael, Palumbo and Shanahan, William O. (Westport, Conn., 1981), 67–86.Google Scholar

⁷ There were numerous reasons that Eastern European nationalism took this form One of these is well explainedGoogle Scholar by Janos, Andrew C. in The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, 1825–1945 (Princeton, N.J., 1982), 69.Google Scholar Given the multinational character of the country, Janos, writes, Hunprogarians devised “a new formula that assigned historical primacy to the state over the nation, arguing that the state was not so much a product as a producer of national sentiment.”Google Scholar

⁸ Although concentrating on a somewhat later period, Friedrich, Walter, “Die Wiener Südostpolitik im Spiegel der Geschichte der zentralen Verwaltung,”Google Scholar in Die Nationalitätenfrage im alien Ungarn und die Südostpolitik Wiens, by Friedrich, Walter and Harold, Steinacker, Buchreihe der Südostdeutschen Historischen Komission, vol. 3 (Munich, 1959), 7–28, deals with this double problem.Google Scholar The broader implications are well analyzed and explained by Ingrao, Charles W., In Quest and Crisis: Emperor Joseph I and the Habsburg Monarchy (West Lafayette, Ind., 1979).Google Scholar

⁹ Bálint, Hóman and Gyula, Szekfű, Magyar történet, 6th ed., 5 vols. (Budapest, 1939), 5:35.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Magyar életrajzi lexikon, 3rd ed., 3 vols. (Budapest, 1969), 2:473.Google Scholar

¹¹ See Haselsteiner, , Joseph II.Google Scholar

¹² This was already clearly understood one hundred years ago.Google Scholar See Vilmós, Fraknoi, Martinovics és társainak össTxesküvése (The conspiracy of Martinovics and his associates) (Budapest, 1880).Google Scholar

¹³ The other coauthor of Nationalitätenfrage cited in n. 8,Google Scholar Harold, Steinacker, discussed these years on pp. 29–67 of that work under the title “Das Wesen des madjarischen Nationalismus.”Google Scholar George, Barany did the same in “The Age of Royal Absolutism, 1790–1848,” in A History of Hungary, ed. Sugar, Peter F., Peter, Hanák, and Tibor, Frank (Bloomington, Ind., 1990), 174–208.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Hóman, and Szekfű, , Magyar történet, 5:156.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Ibid.., 5:195.

¹⁶ On the 1825–27 Diet,Google Scholar see ibid.., 5:194–95; Ervin, Pamtényi, ed., A History of Hungary (London, 1975), 222–23;Google Scholar Barany, , “The Age of Royal Absolutism,” 188–91; and Pach, gen. ed., Magyarország töténete tiz kötetben (The history of Hungary in ten volumes), vol. 5:Google Scholar Magyarország törénete, 1790–1848, ed. Gyula Mérei and Károly Vörös, 2 vols., 2:632–34.Google Scholar

¹⁷ On Széchenyi's, career prior to 1848,Google Scholar see George, Barany, Stephen Széchenyi and the Awakening of Hungarian Nationalism, 1791–1841 (Princeton, N.J., 1968).Google Scholar

¹⁸ “a vér pedig, melyet a függetlenségért és önfentartásért öntöttunk, nem volt elég tiszta, hisz egy elasszonyodott társadalmi osztály privilégiumaiért folyt ki, nem pedig az ország egyetemes szabadságáért”; quoted in Hóman and Szekfű, Magyar történet, 5:979.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Johann Gottfried, Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, pt. 4, chap. 2, in Herders Werke, ed. Eugen, Kuhnsmann (Stuttgart, n.d.), 77:660ff.Google Scholar

²⁰ Mérei, and Vörös, , Magyarország története, 1790–1848, 2:979.Google Scholar On Wesselényi, see Miklós, Asztalos, Wesselényi Miklós, az elsó nemzetiségi politikus (Miklós Wesselényi, the first politician of nationality) (Pécs, 1927).Google Scholar

²¹ “Ezek nélkül… ma már Europában lehet gyarmat, lehet népfaj, de nemzet nem. A magyar pedig nemzet akar lenni, nemzet a XIX. század kellékeinek értelmében”; Hetilap, no. 12 (1845),Google Scholar quoted in Mérei, and Voros, , Magyarország története, 1790–1848, 2:978.Google Scholar The literature on Kossuth is enormous. Practically every one of his actions produced a special study. See the extensive bibliographies in Hóman, and Szekfű, , Magyar történet, 5:624–80, and for newer works,Google Scholar see István, Deák, The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848–1849 (New York, 1979), 392–99.Google Scholar Yet I cannot recommend a single volume that deals in a satisfactory, scholarly manner with his entire life and career.Google Scholar

²² Mérei, and Vörös, , Magyarország története, 1790–1848, 2:1357.Google Scholar

²³ Sugar, et al. , A History of Hungary, 255.Google Scholar

²⁴ For the confederation, see, among others, Domokos, Kosáry and Steven Béla, Várdy, History of the Hungarian Nation (Astor Park, Fla, 1969), 154–55;Google Scholar Barany, , “Hungary from Aristocratic to Proletarian Nationalism,” 275;Google Scholar Éva, Somogyi, “The Age of Neoabsolutism, 1849–1867,” in A History of Hungary, ed. Sugar et al., 246–47;Google Scholar and Pach, gen. ed., Magyarország története tiz kötetben, vol. 5:Google Scholar Magyarország története a dualizmus elsó negyedszáradáben, ed. Endre Kovács and László Katus, 2 vols., 1:709–12.Google Scholar

²⁵ One of the best works on the Ausgleich is still Louis, Eisenmann, Le compromis austro-hongrois de 1867: Étude sur le dualism (Paris, 1904)Google Scholar More up-to-date is Anton, Vantuch and Ľudovit, Hoiotik, eds., Der Österreichisch-Ungarische Ausgleich, 1867 (Bratislava, 1971).Google Scholar See also the relevant passages in Adam, Wandruszka and Peter, Urbanitsch, eds., Die Habsburgermonarchie, 1848–1918 (Vienna, 1975), esp. 2:31–34,37ff., 378–84,514–19;Google Scholar and the views of Kann, Robert A. in A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918 (Berkeley, Calif., 1974), 333-38,Google Scholar and The Multi-National Empire (New York, 1964), 2:125–33.Google Scholar

²⁶ The only recent study on Deák is Király, Béla K, Ferenc Deák (Boston, 1975).Google Scholar Eotvos was studied by Johann, Weber, Eötvös und die ungarische Nationalitátenfrage(Munich, 1966);Google Scholar István, Sötér, Eötvös József (Budapest, 1967);Google Scholar and Paul, Bödy, Joseph Eötvös and the Modernization of Hungary, 1840–1870 (Philadelphia, 1972).Google Scholar On Gyula, Andrássy, the two-volume Gróf Andrássy Gyula élete és kora (The life and times of Count Gyula Andrássy) (Budapest, 1913) by Ede Monori Wetheimer is still useful.Google Scholar

²⁷ Király, , Ferenc Deák, 159.Google Scholar

²⁸ Ibid.., 193; Gábor, Vermes, István Tisza (New York, 1985), 28.Google Scholar

²⁹ Mérei, and Vörös, , Magyarország története, 1790–1848, 2:1360.Google Scholar

³⁰ We need a good biography of Kálmán Tisza.Google Scholar His role as prime minister is covered by Friedrich, Gottas, Ungarn im Zeitalter des Hochliberalismus. Studien zurTisza-Äre (1875–1899) (Vienna, 1976).Google Scholar

³¹ Janos, , The Politics of Backwardness, 126.Google Scholar

³² Ibid..,129.

³³ See Attila, Pók, “Nemzet és nemzetiség Grünwald Béla gondolkodásában” (Nation and nationality in the thinking of Béla Grünwald), in Polgárosodás Közép-Európában (The embourgeoisement in Central Europe), ed. Éva, Somogyi (Budapest, 1991), 215–28.Google Scholar

³⁴ “A jővő nemzedék jobban fogja magasztalni politikai bölcsességünket, ha egy compact, erős magyar államot fog tölünk örökölni, néhány nekünk szabadelvünek Iátszó intézmény nélkül, mintha szabadelviségünk hirét hagyjuk rá—a magyar állam nélkül”; Pók, “Nemzet és nemzetiség,” 217.Google Scholar

³⁵ In 1880, in the first post-Ausgleich census, 41 percent of greater Hungary's population was counted as Magyar. In the last prewar census, in 1910, their percentage was up to 48.1.Google Scholar See Péter, Hanák, Tibor, Erényi, and György, Szabad, Magyarország története, 1849–1918 (The history of Hungary, 1849–1918) (Budapest, 1972), 619. This is the fourth volume of the official university textbook.Google Scholar

³⁶ On the assimilation of Jews, see William O, McCagg, Jewish Nobles and Geniuses in Modern Hungary (Boulder, Colo., 1972),Google Scholar and idem., A History of the Habsburg Jews, 1670–1918 (Bloomington, Ind., 1989), esp. 123–39,187–95.Google Scholar Also of interest are Janos, The Politics of Backwardness, 112–13, 223–26, and Vermes, István Tisza, 153–55.Google Scholar On 283–84 and in table 39 on p. 282 Janos shows that of the seven prime ministers between 1932 and 1944, four—Gömbös, Darányi, Imrédy, and Sztójay—used Magyarized names. He identifies ten additional cabinet ministers whose families were of non-Magyar ethnic origin. It is well known that the original family name of Ferenc, Szálasi, the “leader” of the ArrowCross Party and after 1944 of the short-lived Hungarian Nazi state, was Salosjan.Google Scholar

³⁷ On István Tisza, see besides the already cited volume by Gábor, Vermes, Gustáv Erényi, , Graf Stefan Tisza (Vienna, 1935),Google Scholar and Ottokar, Czernin, Emlékeim Tisza István Grófról (Budapest, 1925), although these are much less scholarly than the Vermes volume.Google Scholar

³⁸ Vermes, , István Tisza, 117.Google Scholar

³⁹ Ibid..,139.

⁴⁰ Ferenc, Pölöskei, Kormányzati politika és parlamenti ellenzék, 1910–1914 (Governmental politics and parliamentary opposition, 1910–1914), (Budapest, 1970), 51:Google Scholar “Nemzeti szempontbó1 semmi esetre sem kivánatos bármilyen tiszta nemzetiségi iskola engedélyezése, s különösen nem az északnyugati tót vármegyekben, melyek amugy is melegágyat képeznek a pánszálvizmusnak.”Google Scholar

⁴¹ Ibid.., 50: “A délszláv eszme a valóságban nem létezik, s csak az egyetemeken tudnak róla. Nagyszerbia, Ausztria és Magyarország szlávjai szemében utópia, amelynek csak igen kevés hive van.”Google Scholar

⁴² Vermes, , István Tisza, 101.Google Scholar

⁴³ Pölöskei, , Kormányzati politika, 51:Google Scholar “könnyebb eloszor nyugvopontra vinni az erdé1yi románok ügyét, mint tartósan békét kötni pánszláv agitációtó1 nehezen eszigelheto, Szerbia közelében é1ó délszláVokkal.”Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Miron, Constantinescu, Stefan, Pascu, O, Bányai et al. , Unification of the Romanian National State (Bucharest, 1971), 89.Google Scholar Pölöskei, , Kormányzati politika, 51, agrees with this statement. For the demands of the Romanian negotiators, see Constantinescu et al., Unification, 89ff.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Vermes, , István Tisza, 154.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ On Károlyi, see Tibor, Hajdú, Az ószirózsás forradalom (The Aster Revolution) (Budapest, 1963)Google Scholar On the Soviet Republic, see Károlyi's, The Hungarian Soviet Republic, Studia Historica, vol. 131 (Budapest, 1979),Google Scholar and Tőkés, Rudolf L., Béla Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Republic (New York, 1967).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ On the Hungarian Red Army, see Peter, Pastor, ed., Revolutions and Interventions in Hungary and Its Neighbor States, 1918–1919 (Boulder, Colo., 1988), esp. 11–104.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Horth's life is discussed by Peter, Gosztonyi, Miklós von Horthy (Göttingen,1973),Google Scholar and Thomas, Sakmyster, Hungary's Admiral on Horseback, Nicholas Horthy (Boulder, Colo., 1994).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ The Holy Crown theory is presented by Kelleher, Patrick J, The Holy Crown of Hungary (Rome, 1951),Google Scholar and Charles, d'Eszlary, Histoire des institutions publiques hongroises (Paris, 1963), 2:7–15.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Ignáz, Romsics, István Bethlen: A Great Conservative Statesman of Hungary (Boulder, Colo., 1995);Google Scholar Péter, Sipos, Imrédy Béla és a Magyar Megujulás Pártja (Béla Imrédy and the Party of Hungarian Regeneration) (Budapest, 1970);Google ScholarLoránt, Tilkovszky, Pál Teleki (1879–1941) (Budapest, 1874);Google Scholar Éva, Teleki, Nyilas uralom Magyarországon (Arrow Cross rule in Hungary) (Budapest, 1974);Google Scholar Elek, Karsai, ed., Szálasi Ferenc naplója (The diary of Ferenc Szálasi) (Budapest, 1978).Google Scholar

⁵¹ The term state-nationalist nationalism, used by Gyorgy Ranki, ed., in vol. 9,Google Scholar Magyarország története, 1918-1919,1919-1945, of Magyarország története tiz kötetben, Pach, gen. ed., p. 812,Google Scholar denotes the same phenomenon described by Janos, , Politics of Backwardness, 69 (see n. 7 above).Google Scholar

⁵² Klebelsberg, first published his definition of Hungarian “neonationalism” in a newspaper article on January 1,1928.Google Scholar For a full English translation, see Sugar, ed., Eastern European Nationalism, 208–11.Google Scholar

⁵³ See the excellent section, “Bethlen and the Jews,” in Janos, , Politics of Backwardness, 222–28.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ On these three ideologies, see ibid.., 256–78.

⁵⁵ The literature on Hungarian “fascism” is extensive and includes Miklós, Lackó, Nyilasok Nemzeti Szocialisták, 1935–1944 (Arrow Cross. National Socialists, 1935–1944) (Budapest, 1966);Google Scholar Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas M., The Green Shirts and the Others (Stanford, Calif., 1970);Google Scholar Szöllösi-Janze, M., Die Pfeilkreutzlerbewegung in Ungarn (Munich, 1989); György Ránki and George Barany, “Hungary,” in Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918–1945, ed. Peter F. Sugar (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1971), 63–82;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Eros, J., “Hungary,” in European Fascism, ed. Woolf, S. J. (New York, 1969), 111–45;Google Scholar and István, Deák, “Hungary,”in The European Right, ed. Hans, Rogger and Eugene, Weber (Berkeley, Calif., 1966), 364–407.Google Scholar An excellent short summary is “Hungary,” in Payne, Stanley G., A History of Fascism, 1914–1945 (Madison, Wis., 1995), 267–76.Google Scholar For a practically complete bibliography, see Szöllösi-Janze, , Die Pfeilkreutzlerbewegung, 9–16.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ The first catastrophe was the Mongol invasion, 1241–42, and the second was the long Ottoman occupation of central Hungary, 1526–1699.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Sándor, Kónya, “To the Attempt to Establish Totalitarian Fascism in Hungary, 1934–35,” Ada Historica 15, nos. 3–4 (1969): 299–334.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ In this election forty-nine fascist-Nazi deputies were elected. Payne, History of Fascism, 275, expressed the opinion that “in a fair and completely democratic election the totals might have been approximately equal” to the seats gained by the government.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Braham, Randolph L., The Hungarian Labor Service System, 1939–1945 (New York, 1977).Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Ádam, Rozsnyói, “October Fifteen, 1944,” Ada Historica 8, nos. 1–2 (1961): 57–106.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Braham, Randolph L., The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary, 2 vols. (New York, 1981);Google Scholar Braham, Randolph L. and Béla, Vágó, The Holocaust in Hungary (New York, 1985);Google Scholar Jen, Lévai, ed., Eichmann in Hungary (Budapest, 1961).Google Scholar

⁶² Erik, Molnár, “A nemzeti kérdés” (The national question), in Válogatott tanulmányok (Selected studies) (Budapest, 1969) For a partial English version, see Sugar, , ed., Eastern European Nationalism, 211–17.Google Scholar

⁶³ The list of literature dealing with 1956 in Hungary runs into several printed pages Included areGoogle Scholar Tamás, Aczél and Tibor, Mérey, The Revolt of the Mind (New York, 1960);Google Scholar United Nations, General Assembly, Report of the Special Committee on the Problems of Hungary (New York, 1957);Google Scholar Zinner, Paul E., Revolution in Hungary (New York, 1962);Google Scholar Kiráy, Béla K. and Paul, Jonás, eds., The First War between Socialist States (New York, 1983);Google Scholar Ágnes, Heller and Ferenc, Fehér, Ungarn 1956, Geschichte einer anti-Stalinistischen Revolution (Hamburg, 1982);Google Scholar Lasky, Melvin J., ed., The Hungarian Revolution: A White Book (New York, 1957);Google Scholar László, Beke, A Student's Diary (New York, 1957);Google Scholar and Tibor, Mérey, Thirteen Days that Shook the Kremlin (New York, 1959).Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Paul, Latavski, ed., Contemporary Nationalism in East Central Europe (New York, 1995), 93.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ József, Antall, “We Make a Difference between Sacred Dreams and Reality,” Hungarian Observer 5, no. 9 (Sept.-Oct. 1992): 14–15.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Latavski, ed., Contemporary Nationalism, 96.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Vladimir, Tismaneanu, “The Leninist Debris; or, Waiting for Peron,” East European Politics and Society 10, no. 3 (Fall 1996): 504–35, discusses this problem on 510.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Sugar, Peter F., “Contemporary Problems in the Balkans,” in Der Balkan. Friedenszone oder Pulverfass, ed. Valeria, Heuberger, Arnold, Suppan, AND Elisabeth, Vyslonzil, Wiener Osteuropa Studien, vol. 7 (Frankfurt am Main, 1998), 22.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ See Fischer, Bernd J., King Zog and the Struggle for Stability in Albania (Boulder, Colo., 1984),Google Scholar and idem, “Albanian Nationalism in the Twentieth Century,” in Eastern European Nationalism, ed. Sugar, 21–54.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Mérei and Vórós, Magyarország tórténete, 1790–1848, 2:731,Google Scholar and Lóránt, Czigány, The Oxford History of Hungarian Literature (Oxford, 1984), 116.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Czigány, Hungarian Literature, 117.Google Scholar

⁷² Nyerges, Anton N., Poems of Endre Ady (Buffalo, N.Y., 1969), 110, 338.Google Scholar

⁷³ Sugar, ed., Eastern European Nationalism, 220–21.Google Scholar