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Cameralism, Josephinism, and Enlightenment: The Dynamic of Reform in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1740–92

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 May 2018

Franz A. J. Szabo
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Extract

In his great 1848 historical drama, Ein Bruderzwist im Hause Habsburg, the Austrian playwright Franz Grillparzer has Emperor Matthias utter the words that have often been applied to understanding the whole history of the Habsburg monarchy:

      Das ist der Fluch von unserm edeln Haus:
      Auf halben Wegen und zu halber Tat
      Mit halben Mitteln zauderhaft zu streben.
      [That is the curse of our noble house:
      Striving hesitatingly on half ways
      to half action with half means.]
True as those sentiments may be of many periods in the history of the monarchy, the one period of which it can not be said is the second half of eighteenth century. The age of Maria Theresa, Joseph II, and Leopold II was perhaps the greatest era of consistent and committed reform in the four-hundred-year history of the monarchy. What I want to address in this article are some aspects of the dynamic of this reform era, and this falls into two categories. On the one hand, there is the broad energizing or motive force behind the larger development, and on the other, there are the ideas or assumptions that lay behind the policies adopted. As might be evident from the subtitle of my article, I propose to look primarily at the second of these categories. I do so because I think while Habsburg historiography has reached considerable consensus on the first, it has not looked enough on the second as an explanatory hermeneutic.

Type
Thirty-Third Annual Robert A. Kann Memorial Lecture
Information
Austrian History Yearbook , Volume 49 , April 2018 , pp. 1 - 14
Copyright
Copyright © Center for Austrian Studies, University of Minnesota 2018 

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References

1 Evans, R. J. W., The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550–1700 (Oxford, 1979), 447Google Scholar.

2 Samuel Clark has astutely observed that in the early modern period states emerged in Western Europe as powerful “political-geographical centers” rather than “nation-states” or “national states,” and that these states in turn shaped the aristocracy and transformed its political, economic, cultural, and status power. Clark, Samuel, State and Status: The Rise of the State and Aristocratic Power in Western Europe (Montreal and Kingston, 1995)Google Scholar.

3 Wangermann, Ernst, The Austrian Achievement, 1700–1800 (London, 1973), 21–55Google Scholar; McKay, Derek and Scott, H. M., The Rise of the Great Powers, 1648–1815 (New York, 1983), 67–77Google Scholar.

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6 Haugwitz's “principles” for the universal system are published in Beer, Adolf, “Die Staatsschulden und die Ordnung des Staatshaushaltes unter Maria Theresia,” Archiv für österreichische Geschichte 83 (1895): 88–93Google Scholar.

7 The best concise summary of the “response to crisis” thesis is Wangermann, Austrian Achievement, esp. pp. 56–105.

8 Khevenhüller-Metsch, Rudolf and Schlitter, Hanns, eds., Aus der Zeit Maria Theresias: Tagebuch des Fürsten Johann Josef Khevenhüller-Metsch, Kaiserlichen Obersthofmeisters, 8 vols. (Vienna, 1907–1972), II:318Google Scholar.

9 Klingenstein, Grete, “Riforma e crisi: la monarchia austriaca sotto Maria Teresa e Giuseppe II. Tentativo di una interpretazione,” in La dinamica statale austriaca nel XVIII e XIX secolo: Strutture e tendenze di storia constituzionale primo e dopo Maria Teresa, ed. Schiera, Pierangelo (Bologna, 1981), 93–125Google Scholar. I have also elaborated on these developments in detail in my Kaunitz and Enlightened Absolutism, 1753–1780 (Cambridge, 1994), and my upcoming chapter in The Cambridge History of the Habsburg Monarchy.

10 Jüttner, Siegfried and Schlobach, Jochen, eds., Europäische Aufklärung(en): Einheit und nationale Vielfalt (Hamburg, 1992)Google Scholar; Israel, Jonathan I., Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750 (Oxford, 2002)Google Scholar; Israel, Jonathan I., Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670–1752 (Oxford, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Israel, Jonathan I., Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights, 1750–1790 (Oxford, 2011)Google Scholar; Sorkin, David, The Religious Enlightenment: Protestant, Jews and Catholics from London to Vienna (Princeton, 2006)Google Scholar.

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12 “Josephinism” is the widely accepted translation of the German original, Josephinismus, in most English-language literature. The principal modern biographer of Joseph II, Derek Beales, has taken exception to this and has preferred to translate it as “Josephism.” He has been followed in this by his Cambridge colleague, Tim Blanning. Cf. Derek Beales, Joseph II, vol. 1: In the Shadow of Maria Theresa, 1741–1780 (Cambridge 1987), vol. 2: Against the World, 1780–1790 (Cambridge, 2009); on the translation of Josephinismus, I:8; Blanning, T. C. W., Joseph II, Profiles in Power (London, 1994), 44–47Google Scholar.

13 A detailed bibliography of this literature to the early 1980s in Plaschka, Richard Georg, Klingenstein, Grete, et al. , eds., Österreich im Europa der Aufklärung: Kontinuität und Zäsur in Europe zur Zeit Maria Theresias und Josephs II, 2 vols. (Vienna, 1985), II:1023–31Google Scholar. Most recently, see Schmale, Wolfgang, Renate Zedinger, and Mondot, Jean, eds., Josephinismus – eine Bilanz/Échecs et réussites du Joséphisme, vol. 22 of Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung des 18. Jahrhunderts (Bochum, 2008)Google Scholar.

14 Valjavec, Fritz, Der Josephismus: Zur geistigen Entwicklung Österreichs im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert (Brünn, 1944)Google Scholar, 2nd rev. ed. (Munich, 1945). Valjavec, Fritz, “Der Josephinismus als politische und weltanschauliche Bewegung,” in Stufen und Wandlungen der deutschen Einheit, eds. Kurt von Raumer and Theodor Schieder (Stuttgart, 1943), 114–32Google Scholar.

15 Bernard, Paul P., The Origins of Josephinism: Two Studies (Colorado Springs, 1964)Google Scholar and Jesuits and Jacobins: Enlightenment and Enlightened Despotism in Austria (Urbana, 1971). A similarly broad definition is also posited by Davis, Walter W., “The Origins of Religious Josephinism,” East Central Europe 1 (1974): 12–34Google Scholar.

16 Beales, Derek, Joseph II, vol. 2, Against the World, 1780–1790 (Cambridge, 2009), 69Google Scholar. In the first volume, In the Shadow of Maria Theresa, 1741–1780, written twenty-two years earlier in 1987, Beales argued that it was “unhelpful” to equate Josephinism with Enlightenment, I:440.

17 Zöllner, Erich, “Bemerkungen zum Problem der Beziehung zwischen Aufklärung und Josephinsmus,” in Österreich und Europa: Festgabe für Hugo Hantsch zum 70. Geburtstag, eds. Institut für österreichische Geschichtsforschung und Wiener Katholische Akademie (Graz, 1965), 203–19Google Scholar.

18 The argument was made in the first two volumes of his five-volume document collection, Der Josephinismus: Quellen zur seiner Geschichte in Österreich, 1760–1790, 5 vols., Fontes Rerum Austriacarum II/71–73 (Vienna, 1951–56). Vol. I: Ursprung und Wesen des Josephinismus, 1760–1769 (1951), vol. II: Entfaltung und Krise des Josephinismus, 1770–1790 (1953).

19 Maass, Ferdinand, Der Frühjosephinismus (Vienna, 1969), 9Google Scholar. On Kaunitz's role during this earlier phase, see my “Fürst Kaunitz und die Anfänge des Josephinismus,” in Österreich im Europa der Aufklärung, I:525–45.

20 Winter, Eduard, Der Josephinismus und seine Geschichte: Beiträge zur Geistesgeschichte des österreichischen Reformkatholizismus, 1740–1848 (Brno, 1943)Google Scholar. The second edition was published under the title Der Josephinismus: Die Geschichte des österreichischen Reformkatholizismus, 1740–1848 (Berlin, 1962). An excellent retrospective on the positions of Valjavec and Winter, particularly in connection with their political implications, can be found in the collection of essays edited by Fillafer, Franz Leander and Wallnig, Thomas, Josephinismus zwischen den Regimen: Eduard Winter, Fritz Valjavec und die zentraleuropäischen Historiographien im 20. Jahrhundert (Vienna, 2016)Google Scholar.

21 The magisterial The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550–1700 by R. J. W. Evans remains the standard work on the subject.

22 I have posited a brief definition in “Josephinism,” in Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, ed. Jonathan Dewald, 6 vols. (New York, 2004), III:380–81.

23 Evans, R. J. W., “The Origins of Enlightenment in the Habsburg Lands,” in Austria, Hungary, and the Habsburgs: Essays on Central Europe, c. 1683–1867 (Oxford, 2006), 37Google Scholar.

24 Specific references will be found in the notes of this article.

25 Ingrao, Charles, “The Problem of ‘Enlightened Absolutism’ and the German States,” Journal of Modern History 58, Supplement: Politics and Society in the Holy Roman Empire, 1500–1806 (1986): 161–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Gagliardo, John, Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 (London, 1991), 116Google Scholar.

27 The pioneering work on the Austrian cameralists is Sommer, Louise, Die österreichischen Kameralisten in dogmengeschichtlicher Darstellung 2 vols. (Vienna, 1920, 1925)Google Scholar, reprinted in one volume (Aalen, 1967). Cf. Dittrich, Erhard, Die deutschen und österreichischen Kameralisten (Darmstadt, 1974)Google Scholar. For a recent, highly skeptical analysis of the cameralists in general, see Wakefield, The Disordered Police State.

28 Brewer, John, The Sinews of Power: War and the English State, 1688–1783 (London, 1989)Google Scholar; Storrs, Christopher, ed., The Fiscal-Military State in Eighteenth-Century Europe: Essays in honour of P.G.M. Dickson (Ashgate, 2009)Google Scholar.

29 Walter, Friedrich, “Die ideellen Grundlagen der österreichischen Staatsreform von 1749,” Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht 17 (1937): 195–205Google Scholar. Friedrich Walter, Die Geschichte der österreichischen Zentralverwaltung in der Zeit Maria Theresias (1740–1780), vol. 1, Section I of Heinrich Kretschmayr, ed., Die Österreichische Zentralverwaltung [henceforth ÖZV], Part II: Von der Vereinigung der österreichischen und böhmischen Hofkanzlei bis zur Einrichtung der Ministerialvervassung (1749–1848) (Vienna, 1938), 99–106. Cf. Dickson, II:8.

30 Adam, Ulrich, The Political Economy of J.H.G. Justi (Oxford, 2006), 26–39Google Scholar.

31 For a concise list of the main extraordinary taxes imposed in the Seven Years’ War, see Dickson II:129. Cf. my Kaunitz and Enlightened Absolutism, 1753–1780 (Cambridge, 1994), 115–30.

32 Vienna, Austrian State Archive, Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv [henceforth HHStA], Staatskanzlei: Vorträge, Karton 81, Kaunitz to Maria Theresia, 15 Aug. 1757.

33 Klingenstein, Grete, “Between Mercantilism and Physiocracy: Stages, Modes, and Functions of Economic Theory in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1748–1763,” in State and Society in Early Modern Austria, ed. Ingrao, Charles W. (West Lafayette, 1994), 185Google Scholar.

34 Duplessis, Georges, ed., Mémoires et Journal de J.-G. Wille, Graveur du Roi, 2 vols. (Paris, 1857), I:117–291Google Scholar.

35 Favart, Charles Simon, Mémoires et Correspondance Littéraires, Dramatiques et Anecdotiques 3 vols. (Paris, 1808, reprinted Geneva, 1970)Google Scholar I, II, passim; Favart as “agent littéraire,” I:7, Durrazzo's request to be kept informed on all publications, I:86.

36 Some typical examples: HHStA, Kabinettsarchiv: Tagebuch Zinzendorf, vol. 6, 16 Mar. 1761; vol. 11, 5 Oct. 1766; vol. 17, 7 Jan. 1772.

37 Thus, for example, Zinzendorf received Arthur Young from Kaunitz's seventeen-year-old (!) daughter, and Rousseau from Princess Kinsky. Ibid., vol. 7, 10 May 1762; vol. 8, 8 Apr. 1763.

38 Some sense of the impact of this can be gleaned from Cerman, Ivo, Habsburgischer Adel und Afklärung: Bildungsverhalten des Wiener Hofadels im 18. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 2010)Google Scholar; and Cerman, Ivo, Krueger, Rita, and Reynolds, Susan, eds., The Enlightenment in Bohemia (Oxford, 2011)Google Scholar. Cf., Evans, “Origins of Enlightenment,” 36–55.

39 Vienna, Deutscher Orden Zentralarchiv [henceforth DOZ], Handschriften, vol. 64, Ludwig Zinzendorf to Karl Zinzendorf, 8 Sept. 1766.

40 Kaunitz claimed that he had a right to call himself a “philosophe” because he was a proponent of “public enlightenment and the abolition of harmful prejudices for the sake of humanity.” HHStA, Staatskanzlei: Wissenschaft und Kunst, Karton 1, Kaunitz to de Silva, 29 Mar. 1769.

41 DOZ, Handschriften, vol. 64, Ludwig Zinzendorf to Karl Zinzendorf, 18 Dec. 1768.

42 Szabo, Kaunitz, 135–39, 163–64. Cf. Szabo, Franz A. J., “Competing Visions of Enlightened Absolutism: Security and Economic Development in the Reform Priorities of the Habsburg Monarchy after the Seven Years War,” in Miscellanea fontium historiae Europaeae: Emlékkönyv H. Balázs Éva történészprofesszor 80. Születésnapjára [Select Sources on European History: Festschrift for History Professor Éva Balázs's 80th birthday], ed. Kalmár, János (Budapest, 1997), 91–200Google Scholar; Szabo, Franz A. J., “Perspective from the Pinnacle: State Chancellor Kaunitz on Nobility in the Habsburg Monarchy,” in Adel im “langen” 18. Jahrhundert, eds. Haug-Moritz, Gabriele, Hye, Hans Peter, and Raffler, Marlies (Vienna, 2009), 239–60Google Scholar. There is no mention of Joseph's role in derailing the reform plans of 1767 in Beales, Joseph.

43 HHStA, Österreichische Akten: Österreich-Staat, Fasz. 6, Joseph Memorandum, 23 Dec. 1775.

44 Schünemann, Konrad, “Die Wirtschaftspolitik Josephs II. in der Zeit seiner Mitregentschaft,” Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreicische Geschichtsforschung 47 (1933): 47–48Google Scholar.

45 von Hock, Carl Freihher and Bidermann, Hermann Ignaz, Der österreichische Staatsrath (1760–1848) (Vienna, 1879), 557Google Scholar.

46 ÖZV II/1/i, 148–248.

47 On this “Kaunitz reform,” see my Kaunitz, 83–99, 353. For Kaunitz's scathing critique of Joseph's despotism, see von Aretin, Karl Otmar Freiherr, Heiliges Römisches Reich, 1776–1806: Reichsverfassung und Staatssouveränität, 2 vols. (Wiesbaden, 1967), II:204–5Google Scholar.

48 von Arneth, Alfred Ritter, ed., Maria Theresia und Joseph II.: Ihre Correspondenz sammt Briefen Joseph's an seinen Bruder Leopold, 3 vols. (Vienna, 1867–68), III:336–37Google Scholar.

49 Schünemann, Wirtschaftspolitik, 41.

50 HHStA, Staatskanzlei: Vorträge, Karton 108, “Geheime Gutachten des Kaysers,” Dec. 1771.

51 HHStA, Kabinettsarchiv: Protokolle, vol. 27, Joseph to Kollowrath, 14 Jan. 1783. On the administrative reform, see Walter, Friedrich, Die Zeit Josephs II. und Leopolds II (1780–1790), ÖZV II/1.2/i (Vienna, 1950)Google Scholar. The significance of this reform has generally not been appreciated and is only treated in passing by Beales, Joseph, II, 338–39.

52 Beales, Joseph, II, 652–65.

53 Rassem, Mohammed, “Bemerkungen zur ‘Sozialdisziplinierung’ im frühmodernen Staat,” Zeitschrfit für Politik 30 (1983): 217–38Google Scholar; Melton, “Absolutism and ‘Modernity,’” 383–98; Rassem, Mohammed, “Arbeitsprobleme des aufgeklärten Absolutismus in Preußen und Österreich,” Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreicische Geschichtsforschung 90 (1982): 49–75Google Scholar; Sachße, Christoph and Tennstedt, Florian, eds., Soziale Sicherheit und Soziale Disziplinirung (Frankfurt, 1986)Google Scholar; Schulze, Winfried, “Gerhard Oestereichs Begriff ‘Sozialdisziplinirung in der Frühen Neuzeit,’” Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung 14 (1987): 265–302Google Scholar.

54 Johnson, Hubert C., “The Concept of Bureaucracy in Cameralism,” Political Science Quarterly 79 (1964): 378–402CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 Raeff, Well-Ordered Police State, 257.

56 This dynamic has been well charted, above all by Ernst Wangermann in such magisterial studies as From Joseph II to the Jacobin Trials: Government Policy and Public Opinion in the Habsburg Dominions in the Period of the French Revolution (Oxford, 1959; 2nd ed., 1969); The Austrian Achievement; Aufklärung und Staatsbürgerliche Erziehung: Gottfried van Swieten als Reformator des österreichischen Unterrichtswesens 1781–1791 (Vienna, 1978); and Die Waffen der Publizität: Zum Funktionswandel der politischen Literatur unter Joseph II (Vienna, 2004).

57 The literature on the Masonic movement in Austria is enormous, in part because of Mozart's membership in the Order. The best introduction remains Edith Rosenstrauch-Königsberg, , Freimaurerei im josephinischen Wien: Aloys Blumauers Weg von Jesuiten zum Jakobiner (Vienna, 1975)Google Scholar, as well as her collection of essays published under the title Zirkel und Zentren: Aufsätze zur Aufklärung in Österreich am Ende des 18. Jahrhundert, edited by Gunnar Hering and introduced by Ernst Wangermann (Vienna, n.d. [1992]). Cf. also Reinalter, Helmut, ed., Joseph II. und die Freimaurer im Lichte Zeitgenössischer Broschüren (Vienna, 1987)Google Scholar; Reinalter, Helmut, ed., Aufklärung und Geheimgesellschaften: Zur politischen Funktion und Sozialstruktur der Freimaurerlogen im 18. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1989)Google Scholar; and Balázs, Éva H., Hungary and the Habsburgs, 1765–1800: An Experiment in Enlightened Absolutism (Budapest, 1997), 33–42Google Scholar. The otherwise laudable Jacob, Margaret, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (Oxford, 1991)Google Scholar is weak on the Habsburg monarchy.

58 HHStA, Österreichische Akten: Österreich-Staat, Fasz. 6, Joseph Memorandum, 27 Apr. 1767.

59 Beer, Adolf, ed., “Denkschriften des Fürsten Kaunitz,” Archiv für österreichische Geschichte 48 (1892): 157Google Scholar; Arneth, Maria Theresia und Joseph II. Correspondenz, III:335–61.

60 Wangermann, Aufklärung und Staatsbürgerliche Erziehung, 19–41.

61 These developments are best followed in Beales, Joseph II, 526–43, 552–54, and in Wangermann, From Joseph II to the Jacobin Trials, 35–55.

62 Standard biographies of Muratori include: Borsara, Guido da, Lodovico Antonio Muratori: sacerdote e sapiente (Modena, 1950)Google Scholar; Cavazzuti, Giuseppe, Lodovico Antonio Muratori (1672–1750) (Modena, 1950)Google Scholar; and Ferruccio, Carlo de, Lodovico Antonio Muratori: La sua vita, la sua opera e la sua epoca (Florence, 1955)Google Scholar. Of particular interest also Vecchi, Alberto, L'opera religiosa del Muratori (Modena, 1955)Google Scholar; Zlabinger, Eleonore, Lodovico Antonio Muratori und Österreich (Innsbruck, 1970)Google Scholar; Garms-Cornides, Elisabeth, “Lodovico Antonio Muratori und Österreich,” Römische Historische Mitteilungen 13 (1971): 333–51Google Scholar; Martino, Giulio de, Muratori filosofo: ragione filosofica e coscienza storica in Lodovico Antonio Muratori (Naples, 1996)Google Scholar; Mari, Fabio, Lodovico Antonio Muratori und Deutschland: Studien zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte der Frühaufklärung (Frankfurt, 1997)Google Scholar; Calapaj, Anna Burlini, Devozioni e Regolata divozione nell'opera di Lodovico Antonio Muratori. Contributo alla storia della liturgia (Rome, 1997)Google Scholar.

63 The literature on Jansenism and its influence is enormous. The best modern survey is Doyle, William, Jansenism: Catholic Resistance to Authority from the Reformation to the French Revolution (New York, 1999)Google Scholar. The major older works are Augustin Gazier, Histoire générale du mouvement janséniste, 2 vols. (Paris, 1924); Orcibal, Jean, Les origines du jansénisme, 5 vols. (Paris, 1947–62)Google Scholar; and Matteucci, Benvenuto, Il giansenismo (Rome, 1954)Google Scholar.

64 Benedikt, Heinrich, Franz Anton Graf von Sporck (1662–1738): Zur Kultur der Barockzeit in Böhmen (Vienna, 1923)Google Scholar; Benedikt, Heinrich, “Der Josephinismus vor Joseph II,” in Österreich und Europa: Festgabe für Hugo Hantsch zum 70. Geburtstag (Graz, 1965), 183–201Google Scholar, esp. pp. 183–89; Wagner, Hans, “Der Einfluss von Gallikanismus und Jansenismus auf die Kirche und Staat der Aufklärung in Österreich,” Österreich in Geschichte und Literatur 11 (1967): 521–23Google Scholar; Winter, Eduard, Der Josephinismus, 1st ed. (Brno, 1943), 2nd ed. (Berlin, 1962)Google Scholar; Winter, Eduard, “Der Jansenismus in Böhmen und Mähren und seine Bedeutung für die geistige Entwicklung Österreich-Ungarns,” Südostforschungen 7 (1942): 440–55Google Scholar; Winter, Eduard, Frühaufklärung (Berlin, 1966), 179–80Google Scholar.

65 Wagner, Hans, Die Aufklärung im Erzstift Salzburg (Salzburg, 1969)Google Scholar; Baumgartner, Konrad, Die Seelsorge im Bistum Passau zwischen barocker Tradition, Aufklärung und Restauration (St. Ottilien, 1975), 21–23Google Scholar; Klamminger, Karl, “Leopold III. Ernst Graf Firmian (1739–1763),” in Die Bischöfe von Graz-Seckau 1218–1968, ed. Amon, Karl (Graz, 1969), 346–61Google Scholar; Leidl, August, “Leopold Ernst Kardinal von Firmian (1708–1783), ein Kirchenfürst an der Wende vom Barock zur Aufklärung,” Ostbairische Grenzmarken 13 (1971): 5–26Google Scholar; Hersche, Peter, “Erzbischof Migazzi und die Anfänge der jansenistischen Bewegung in Wien,” Mitteilungen des österreichischen Staatsarchivs 24 (1971): 208–309Google Scholar.

66 Walter, Friedrich, “Die religiöse Stellung Maria Theresias,” Theologisch-praktische Quartalschrift 105 (1957): 34–47Google Scholar; Hersche, Peter, “War Maria Theresia eine Jansenistin?,” Österreich in Geschichte und Literatur 15 (1971): 14–25Google Scholar. Hersche, Peter, Der Spätjansenismus in Österreich (Vienna, 1977)Google Scholar.

67 Szabo, Franz A. J., “Intorno alle origini del giuseppinismo: motivi economico-sociali e aspetti ideologici,” Socità e storia no. 4 (1979): 155–74Google Scholar.

68 Beer, Adolf, “Die Staatsschulden und die Ordnung des Staatshaushaltes unter Maria Theresia,” Archiv für österreichische Geschichte 82 (1895): 89Google Scholar. HHStA, Staatskanzlei: Vorträge, Karton 73, Haugwitz and Chotek to Maria Theresia, 29 Oct. 1753.

69 Hersche, Peter, “Gerard van Swietens Stellung zum Jansenismus,” Internationale Kirchliche Zeitschrift 61 (1971): 33–56Google Scholar.

70 Klingenstein, Grete, Staatsverwaltung und Kirchliche Authorität: Das Problem der Zensur in der theresianischen Reform (Vienna, 1970), 125Google Scholar; Szabo, “Intorno,” 170–72. Cf. also my “Fürst Kaunitz und die Anfänge des Josephinismus,” 534–37.

71 HHStA, Staatskanzlei: Vorträge, Karton 94, Gerard van Swieten to Kaunitz, 29 July 1764.

72 HHStA, Staatskanzlei: Preussen Korrespondenz, Karton 54, Gottfried van Swieten to Kaunitz, 30 Dec. 1771.

73 Zöllner, “Bemerkungen,” 214–15.

74 Pezzl, Johann, Skizze von Wien, eds. G. Gugitz and A. Schlossar (Graz, 1923), 399–400Google Scholar.

75 This is particularly evident in the agrarian question. Cf. my Kaunitz and Enlightened Absolutism, 158–63, and my “Ambivalez der Aufklärungspolitik in der Habsburgermonarchie unter Joseph II. und Leopold II.,” in Ambivalenzen der Aufklärung: Festschrift für Ernst Wangermann, eds. Gerhard Ammerer and Hanns Haas (Vienna, 1997), 24. See also Grünberg, Karl, Die Bauernbefreiung und die Auflösung des gutsherrlich-bäuerlichen Verhältnisses in Böhmen, Mähren und Schlesien, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1894), I:190–92Google Scholar, II:161–170; Černý, Václav, “Pozemková reforma v. XVIII. stoleti,” Časopis pro dějiny venkova [Journal of Rural History] 14 (1927): 25–27Google Scholar; Krueger, Rita, “Mediating Progress in the Provinces: Central Authority, Local Elites, and Agrarian Societies in Bohemia and Moravia,” Austrian History Yearbook 35 (2004): 49–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.