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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 22 April 2015
The significance of the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918 is unquestionable in the context of Central European history. Small countries were formed, replacing a multinational empire. These new countries, however, had to deal with the aftermath of the downfall of the monarchy in the political, economic, and social spheres for a long time thereafter. Because so much is known about the collapse of the Danubian Monarchy today, one may wonder what else could possibly be said about the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Countless authors at home and abroad, some of them distinguished and others unreliable, as well as eyewitnesses and professional historians, have all devoted time and energy to this subject throughout the nearly one hundred years that have passed since the old monarchy fell apart.
This article was written with the support of Charles University in Prague, PRVOUK No. 12/205 605 Research Support Scheme.
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12 Bryan to Wilson, 17 May 1915, National Archives College Park, Maryland (NA), Record Group 59 (RG 59), Microcopy 367, Reel 141.
13 Hohenlohe (Austro-Hungarian ambassador to Berlin) to Burián, 8 June 1915, No. 51/ P–B, HHStA, PA, Kt. 843 Liasse Krieg 4c Deutschland 1915.
14 Note der k. und k. Ministers des k. und k. Hauses und des Äussern an den Botschafter der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika in Wien, 29 June 1915. HHStA, PA, Kt. 843 P. A. I.
15 Burián to Dumba, 25 Aug. 1915, No. missing. HHStA, PA, Kt. 897 Liasse Krieg 7a U. S. A. 1914–1917, 7b U.S.A. 1915–1916 (hereinafter referred to as 897 P. A. I.).
16 Austrian and German Papers Found in Possession of Mr. James F. J. Archibald, Falmouth, London, 30 Aug. 1915.
17 For information on the Dumba (Archibald) affair, see: Horčička, Václav, “On the Brink of War: The Crisis Year of 1915 in Relations between the U.S. and Austria-Hungary,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 19, 2 (2008): 187–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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19 German submarines operated under this cover with official approval from the Austro-Hungarian navy as of spring 1915. One of the reasons was the fact that as opposed to Austria-Hungary, Germany was not yet at war with Italy, and its submarines could therefore not attack Italian vessels. Sokol, Hans H., Österreich-Ungarns Seekrieg 1914–18 (Zürich/Leipzig u. a., 1933)Google Scholar, 337.
20 “Nine Americans Lost on the Ancona,” The New York Times, 15 Nov. 1915, 1; a T. N. Page (the U.S. Ambassador in Italy) to Wilson, 18 Dec. 1915, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1915, Supplement (Suppl.), ed. United States Department of State, Washington 1928, 646.
21 Lansing to Penfield (the U.S. ambassador to Vienna), 6 Dec. 1915, FRUS, 1915, Suppl., 623–25.
22 Text of the Austro-Hungarian note from 15 Dec. 1915, Penfield to Lansing 15 Dec. 1915, FRUS, 1915, Suppl., 638–39.
23 Hohenlohe to Burián, 16 Dec. 1915, No. 534. HHStA, PA, Administrative Registratur (AR), Fach 36, Kt. 365 (Kt. 36/365).
24 Burián to Lansing 15 Dec. 1915, FRUS 1915, Suppl., 655–58.
25 The German Chancellor von Bethmann Hollweg really did promise that he would stop the attacks. Hohenlohe to Burián, 31 Dec. 1915. HHStA, PA, AR, Kt. F 36/365.
26 In one article, The New York Times claimed that if Austria-Hungary was not Germany's vassal, it would apologize for the sinking of the Ancona. “Austria's Opportunity,” The New York Times, 19 Dec. 1915, 16.
27 Hohenlohe to Burián, 24 Apr. 1916, No. 133. HHStA, PA, Kt. 844 Liasse Krieg 4c Deutschland 1916–1918, 5a Italien 1915 (hereafter referred to as 844 P. A. I). Germany finally agreed to not sink passenger ships without giving prior warning.
28 See: Shanafelt, Gary W., The Secret Enemy. Austria-Hungary and the German Alliance, 1914–18 (New York, 1985), 86–88.Google Scholar
29 “Austria Concerned over U-Boat War,” The New York Times, 18 Nov. 1916, 1.
30 Molden, memorandum, 4 Oct. 1916, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 503 P. A. I Liasse XLVII/3 (15–16): Krieg 1914–1918 (hereinafter referred to as 503 P. A. I.).
31 Burián to Bethmann Hollweg, 9. 10. 1916, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 503 P. A. I.
32 (German: “der ganze Unterschied zwischen Hughes und Wilson von einem Barbier in fünf Minuten beseitigt werden könnte”) Zwiedinek to Burián, 15. 8. 1916, No. 25/pol. HHStA, PA, Kt. 52 PA XXXIII U.S.A. Ber., Varia 1915–17 Weis. 1917.
33 Lansing, Notes, Sept. 1916, LC, The Papers of Robert Lansing, Vol. 63.
34 Bethmann Hollweg to Burián, 14 Oct. 1916, No. missing. HHStA, PA, Kt. 503 P. A. I.
35 Burián, 30 Oct. 1916, No. missing. HHStA, PA, Kt. 955 P. A. I Liasse Krieg 25 p Friedensverhandlg. (hereinafter referred to as 955 P. A. I).
36 Burián, Aufzeichnung über die Verhandlungen in Berlin am 15. und 16 Nov. 1916, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 503 P. A. I. The Germans were worried that if overly harsh conditions were published, the Entente could use them as an excuse to reject the offer. Lenient conditions, on the other hand, could cause controversy on the domestic political front. The Austro-Hungarian proposals contained substantial territorial claims, including the annexation of Montenegro, and one could therefore agree with the German belief that they should not have been published.
37 Feigl, Erich, Kaiser Karl I. Ein Leben für den Frieden seiner Völker (Vienna-Munich, 1990)Google Scholar, 86.
38 “New Empress's Brothers Fighting in Belgian Army,” The New York Times, 23 Nov. 1916, 1.
39 “Austrian Ruler Pacific,” The New York Times, 12 Dec. 1916, 16.
40 Doerries, Die Tätigkeit, 229–32.
41 I selected the following from a whole line of Burián's appeals: Burián to Hohenlohe, 5. 12. 1916, No. 5841. HHStA, PA, Kt. 955 P. A. I. For the stance of the German generals, see: Karl I. to Burián, 5 Dec.1916, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 955 P. A. I.
42 Hohenlohe to Burián, 3 Dec. 1916, No. 386, HHStA, PA, Kt. 955 P. A. I.
43 Penfield to Lansing, 11 Dec. 1916, FRUS, 1916, Suppl., 85.
44 Devlin, Patrick, Too Proud to Fight: Woodrow Wilson's Neutrality (New York/London, 1975)Google Scholar, 575.
45 From the Diary of Colonel House, PWW 40 (Princeton, N J, 1982), 65–69.
46 Notes, 3 Dec. 1916, LC, The Papers of Robert Lansing, Vol. 63.
47 Lansing to the ambassadors and ministers in countries, which were in the war; 18 Dec. 1916, FRUS, 1916, Suppl., 97–99.
48 (German: “zwischen Pessimismus und Optimismus, beurteilte die Lage heute als hoffnungsvoll und morgen als unabänderlich verloren”) Ervin Matsch, November 1918 auf dem Ballhausplatz. Erinnerungen Ludwigs Freiherrn von Flotow 1895–1920 (Vienna/Cologne/Graz, 1982), 318.
49 Czernin to Penfield, 26 Dec. 1916, No. missing. HHStA, PA, Kt. 954 P. A. I Liasse Krieg 25l-p, Friedensverhandlg.
50 Walter Hines Page (the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom) to Lansing, 22 Dec. 1916, PWW 40, 319.
51 Czernin to the Emperor, Jan. 1917, No. 1. HHStA, PA, Kt. 261 P. A. XL Interna, Korr. d. Ministers 1911–1918.
52 Sharp (the U.S. Ambassador in France) to Lansing, 29 Dec. 1916. FRUS 1916, Suppl., 123–25.
53 Flotow, Aufzeichnung, 15 Jan. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 503 P. A. I.
54 Ministerrat, 22 Jan. 1917, No. G. M. K. P. Z 532. HHStA, PA, Kt. 313 P. A. XL Interna—Gemeins. Ministerrats. Prot. 1916–1917 III.
55 An Address to the U.S. Senate, 22 Jan. 1917, PWW 40, 533.
56 Czernin to Larisch (Berlin) 5 Feb. 1917, No. 58. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I Liasse Krieg 81a U-Boot Krieg (hereinafter referred to as 1047 P. A. I.).
57 From the Diary of Colonel House, 1 Feb. 1917, PWW 41, 86–89.
58 “Austria Cabinet to Call Parliament,” The New York Times, 23 Dec. 1916, 1.
59 Penfield to Lansing, 12 Oct. 1916, FRUS, 1916, Suppl., 800.
60 Ottokar Czernin, Im Weltkriege, Berlin/Wien 1919, 143.
61 Two Letters from Robert Lansing, 26 Oct. 1916, PWW 38, 544–45.
62 W. H. Page to Lansing, 15 Dec. 1916, FRUS, 1916, Suppl., 806; a Sharp to Lansing, 18 Dec. 1916, ibid.
63 Phillips, Diary entry, 9 Feb. 1917, Harvard University Library (HUL), William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
64 Czernin to Hohenlohe, 12 Feb. 1916, No. 74. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I.
65 House, Diary entry, 4 Feb. 1917, Yale University Library, Edward Mandell House Papers, Reel 4.
66 Aide-memoire, 18 Feb. 1917. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I.
67 Czernin to Hohenlohe, 21 Feb. 1917. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I.
68 Lansing to Wilson, 10 Feb. 1917, LC, Woodrow Wilson Papers, Series 2, Reel 86.
69 The Counselor for the Department of State Frank Lyon Polk only mentioned the National Question once in a conversation with Zwiedinek. Polk, Diary entry, 3 Mar. 1917. Yale University Library, Frank Lyon Polk Papers, Group 656, Series III, Box 22.
70 “Austria and Bohemia,” The New York Times, 21 Jan. 1917, 1. An article based on information from a representative of the Bohemian National Alliance in America pointed out that Emperor Charles did revoke the death penalties for these people, but he only changed their punishment to lifetime imprisonment. The informant was also in opposition to the federalization of Austria-Hungary and was demanding full independence of Czech lands.
71 From Norman Hapgood, 29 Feb. 1917, PWW 41, 56–57. Hapgood sent to Wilson a memorandum drafted by T. G. Masaryk supporting the collapse of the monarchy.
72 H. Page to Lansing, 21 Feb. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 1, The World War (hereinafter referred to as WW), 56.
73 Two Letters from Robert Lansing, 10 Feb. 1917, PWW 41, 185.
74 Aide-memoire, 2 Mar. 1917. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I., Austria-Hungary supported the principles of unrestricted submarine warfare. It concurrently claimed that its navy did not operate in the Atlantic and therefore posed no threat to the United States.
75 Unterredung Czernin Penfield, 26 Feb. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 1092a Nachlass Czernin, Nachlass Demblin.
76 From Frederic Courtland Penfield, 13 Mar. 1917, PWW 41, 398–99.
77 “Vienna Hopes to Avoid a Break,” The New York Times, 19 Feb. 1917, 1.
78 Adams, “Courting the ‘Vassal,’” 149.
79 Great Britain and France both conducted secret peace probes with Austria-Hungary in the winter of 1917. See, e.g., Fest, Wilfried, Peace or Partition: The Habsburg Monarchy and British Policy, 1914–1918 (London, 1978), 60–61 Google Scholar; and Kann, Robert A., Die Sixtusaffäre und die Geheimen Frieidensverhandlungen Österreich-Ungarns im Ersten Weltkrieg (Vienna, 1966).Google Scholar
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81 “Washington Holds Off Break with Austria,” The New York Times, 18 Mar. 1917, 3.
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87 A Memorandum by John Howard Whitehouse, 14 Apr. 1917, PWW 42, 65–69. This was an exaggerated statement. The Germans did want Austria-Hungary to stand by them, but Czernin's pressure on Turkey and Bulgaria to end diplomatic relations with the United States was his own initiative.
88 “Report Austria in Direful State,” The New York Times, 17 Apr. 1917, 2
89 Phillips, Diary entry, 6 May 1917. Harvard University Library (HUL), William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
90 Phillips, Diary entry, 24 May 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
91 Grew to Eda von Kleist, 27 Mar. 1917. HUL, Joseph C. Grew Papers, Vol. 10.
92 K. k. Polizeidirektion Wien to the Foreign Ministry, 27 Mar. 1917, No. Pr. Z. 2778 Z. St.. HHStA, PA, Kt. 196 P. A. XL Interna. Korr. mit Behörden 1917.
93 Philips to Dresel, 19 May 1917. HUL Dresel, E. L. Papers, Folder 316. Dresel was another graduate of Harvard University at the State Department and was thus very close with Phillips and Grew.
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97 Stovall to Lansing, 1 June 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, Washington 1932, 82–83.
98 Storck to Czernin, 13 May 1917, No. 1497, HHStA, PA, Kt. 1047 P. A. I.
99 “Austrian Emperor Honors Dumba,” The New York Times, 23 May 1917, 4.
100 Phillips, Diary entry, 2 June 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
101 Grew, Report on Conditions in the Countries of the Central Powers for the Past Week, 4 June 1917. Yale University Library, Frank L. Polk Papers, Series 3, Box 22. Grew praised those close to the emperor, especially Prince Konrad Hohenlohe, the highest official at the court of the emperor, for their “active and progressive” stance.
102 Phillips, Diary entry, 2 June 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
103 Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, and Japan agreed to this on 30 Nov. 1915.
104 A Memorandum by John Howard Whitehouse, 14 Apr. 1917, PWW 42, 65–69.
105 Sharp to Bryan, 1 May 1915, No. 737. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 21.
106 Philips, Diary entry, 2 July 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
107 Jean Jules Jusserand to the Foreign Ministry, 24 Apr. 1917, PWW 42, 127–29.
108 From the Diary of Colonel House, 28 Apr. 1918, PWW 42, 155–58.
109 From Edward Mandell House, 13 May 1917, PWW 42, 288–89.
110 From Arthur James Balfour, with Enclosure, 18 May 1917, PWW 42, 327–42.
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113 From Edward Mandell House, 30 May 1917, PWW 42, 425.
114 A Flag Day Address, 14 June 1917, PWW 42, 498–504.
115 Adams, Courting the “Vassal,” 176–77.
116 A Flag Day Address, 14 June 1917, PWW 42, 498–504.
117 Page to Lansing, 21 June 1917, No. 6509. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 375.
118 Tagesbericht, 20 July 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 58 P. A. XL Interna. Tagesber. d. Min. d. Äuss. 1917 V–VIII.
119 Generalkommissariat für Kriegs- und Übergangswirtschaft beim Handelsmin. an das Außenmin, 10 July 1917, No. Z. 19593/ IV ex 1917. HHStA, PA, AR, Kt. F36/46 Krieg 1914–1918 Dept. 16, Abt. 4 Staaten A-J. The directorate was created in March 1917. The export of explosives from the United States in the first four months of 1917 exceeded the export volume for the entire year of 1916.
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122 Fleming, The Illusion of Victory, 113.
123 Mamatey, The United States and East Central Europe, 91–93.
124 Unterberger, The United States, Revolutionary Russia and the Rise of Czechoslovakia, 58–59.
125 “The Magyar Golden Age,” The New York Times, 27 May 1917, 2.
126 Lansing to J. J. Babka, 10 April 1917. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 695, Reel 24.
127 Stovall to Lansing, 7 July 1917, No. 1174. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 695, Reel 5.
128 “No Famine in Austria,” The New York Times, 25 May 1916, 2.
129 Penfield to Lansing, 5 Aug. 1917. LC, The Papers of Robert Lansing, Vol. 29. Penfield made the correct estimation, even though the Ukraine was not occupied until the winter and the spring of 1918. Austro-Hungarian units seized Odessa as the Germans stood witness.
130 Šedivý, Ivan, Češi, České země a velká válka 1914–1918 [Czechs, Czech Lands and the Great War 1914–1918] (Prague, 2001), 122.Google Scholar
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135 Czernin, Im Weltkriege, 99.
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140 “Empress Zita for France,” The New York Times, 8 July 1917, S. 2.
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144 William Graves Sharp to Robert Lansing, 23 July 1917, PWW 43, 255–56.
145 William Graves Sharp to Jules Martin Cambon, 7 Aug. 1917, PWW 43, 387–88.
146 Prior to the war, Foerster was a visiting professor at the University of Vienna and was well known for his proposals for the internal reform of Cisleithania, which were to improve the relationship between the Slavic- and the German-speaking population.
147 Benedikt, Heinrich, Die Friedensaktion der Meinlgruppe 1917/1918. Die Bemühungen um einen Verständigungsfrieden nach Dokumenten, Aktenstücken und Briefen (Graz/Cologne, 1962), 118–20Google Scholar. Businessman Julius Meinl founded the Austrian Political Society in Dec. 1915. The last Austrian Minister-President Heinrich Lammasch and Imperial Council Deputy Josef Redlich were among its members. Schicksalsjahre Österreichs 1908–1919. Das politische Tagebuch Josef Redlichs, bearbeitet von Fritz Fellner [Austria's Vital years 1908–1919. The Political Journal of Josef Redlich, Revised by Fritz Fellner], vol. II (Graz-Kraz, 1954), 222.Google Scholar
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149 Valiani, Leo, The End of Austria-Hungary, 2nd ed. (London, 1973), 274–75Google Scholar. Herron from Switzerland supported the United States' intervention in the war on the side of the Entente and welcomed Wilson's reelection as president in the fall of 1916. After the United States entered into war, he wrote several admiring articles on the president entitled Woodrow Wilson and the World's Peace. Wilson asked him for regular reports on the situation in Europe already in the spring of 1917.
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152 In spite of Lloyd George's support, the probes failed because of Italy's refusal to curtail its demands on Austria-Hungary. The cautious stance of French Prime Minister Alexandre Ribot also played a role. Kann, Robert A., Die Sixtus Affäre und die geheimen Friedensverhandlungen Österreich-Ungarns im Ersten Weltkrieg (Vienna, 1966)Google Scholar, 32.
153 A Translation of a Letter from Baron Moncheur to Baron Charles de Broqueville, 14 Aug. 1917, PWW 43, 465–70. German liberal Friedrich Naumann published a book titled Mitteleuropa in 1915. The goal was to create economic cooperation between the nations in this area controlled by Germany. Compared to the chauvinists among Austrian Germans, Naumann was much more benevolent in the questions about languages.
154 Zivojnovic, Dragan R., “The Vatican, Woodrow Wilson, and the Dissolution of the Hapsburg Monarchy 1914–1918,” East European Quarterly 3, 1 (1969) 31–70 Google Scholar. Benedikt XV, born Giacomo della Chiesa, was a cardinal and archbishop in Bologna prior to his election in Sept. 1914.
155 The text of the pope's appeal is, for example, published in Page to Lansing, 15 Aug. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 161–63.
156 For more information, see: Steglich, Wolfgant, Die Friedenspolitik der Mittelmächte 1917/1918, vol. I (Wiesbaden, 1964)Google Scholar, 117, etc.
157 Steglich, ibid., 147. Michaelis became the Chancellor after Bethmann-Hollweg resigned on 14 July 1917. Von Kühlmann was nominated on 6 Aug. 1917.
158 Shanafelt, The Secret Enemy, 146–47.
159 For the German response, see: H. Wilson to Lansing, 30 Sept. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 217–222. See also: Steglich, 200–2.
160 Shanafelt, The Secret Enemy, 147.
161 For the Austro-Hungarian response, see: H. Wilson to Lansing, 30 Sept. 1917, FRUS, 1917, 217–22.
162 Czernin, Im Weltkriege, 236–42. The emperor initially considered giving into Italy's demands, but after Czernin's insistence, he deleted this part from his letter.
163 Demblin, Diary entry, 26 Sept. 1917, in Demblin, August, Minister gegen Kaiser. Aufzeichnungen eines österreichisch-ungarischen Diplomaten über Aussenminister Czernin und Kaiser Karl (Wien-Köln and others, 1997)Google Scholar, 38.
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165 From Edward Mandell House, 15 Aug. 1917, PWW 43, 471–72.
166 From Robert Lansing, 20 Aug. 1917, PWW 43, 523–25.
167 From Robert Lansing, with Enclosure, 21 Aug. 1917, PWW 44, 18–22.
168 Walter Hines Page to Robert Lansing and William Graves Sharp to Robert Lansing, 21 Aug. 1917, PWW 44, 23–26.
169 Reply to the Pope, 27 Aug. 1917, PWW 44, 57–58.
170 Phillips, Diary entry, 28 Aug. 1917, HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
171 Phillips, Diary entry, 29 Aug. 1917, HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
172 Stovall to Lansing, 3 Aug. 1917, No. 1750. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 375.
173 Stovall to Lansing, 9 Aug. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 198.
174 Meckling, Die Aussenpolitik des Grafen Czernin, 130–31.
175 Stovall to Lansing, 5 July 1917, No. 1162. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 375.
176 Károlyi, Michael Graf, Gegen eine ganze Welt. Mein Kampf um Frieden (Munich, 1924), 99–102.Google Scholar
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178 Stovall to Lansing, 13 Aug. 1917, No. 1415. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 375.
179 Aufzeichnung über eine am 20. Jänner im k. u. k. Ministerium des k. u. k. Hauses und des Aeussern stattgehabte Besprechung, 20 Jan. 1917, No. missing. HHStA, PA, Kt. 1092 a P. A. I Nachlass Czernin, Nachlass Demblin.
180 AOK, “Über die Lage,” 19 Aug. 1917, Op. Geh. No. 390. HHStA, PA, Kt. 500 P. A. I.
181 Musulin to Czernin, 27 Nov. 1917, No. 1076. HHStA, PA, Kt. 898 P. A. I Liasse Krieg 7c–f USA 1915–1918 (hereinafter referred to as 898 P. A. I.).
182 Hoyos to Czernin, 6 Oct. 1917, No. 41/ P.–B. HHStA, PA, Kt. 898 P. A. I.
183 From the Diary of Colonel House, 16 Sept. 1917, PWW 44, 200–203.
184 “Belgians at Oyster Bay,” The New York Times, 23 Aug. 1917, 8.
185 T. Page to Lansing, 11 Sept. 1917, No. 1079. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 52.
186 “Austria is Expected to Declare War on Us,” The New York Times (29 Aug. 1917): 3.
187 H. Wilson to Lansing, 1 Oct. 1917, No. 1775. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 54.
188 H. Wilson was right in that the current status of the Isonzo army was not good. Šedivý, Ivan, Češi, České země a velká válka [Czechs, Czech Lands and the Great War] (Praha, 2001)Google Scholar, 137.
189 For peace efforts of Mein's group, cf. Benedikt, Die Friedensaktion, 13–15.
190 Grant-Smith to Lansing, 22 Oct. 1917, No. 1112. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 63.
191 AOK to Außenmin., 22 Oct. 1917, No. 17813. HHStA, PA, Kt. 951 P. A. I Liasse Krieg 25a Friedensverhandlg.
192 From Robert Lansing, with Enclosures, 10 Oct. 1917, PWW 44, 347–51.
193 Phillips, Diary entry, 4 Oct. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
194 An Address in Buffalo to the American Federation of Labor, 12 Nov. 1917, PWW 45 (Princeton, NJ, 1984), 11–17.
195 See Meckling, Die Aussenpolitik des Grafen Czernin, 165 f.; or Snyder, Timothy, The Red Prince: The Secret Lives of a Habsburg Archduke (New York, 2008).Google Scholar
196 Lansing, Notes, 24 Oct. 1917. LC, The Papers of Robert Lansing, Vol. 63.
197 Lansing to Wilson, 21. 6 June 1917, No. missing. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 375.
198 To Robert Lansing, with Enclosures, 21 Aug. 1917, PWW 44, 3–7.
199 Piotr Anczewski, Nie zardzewiał miecz…Katalog fotografii. Wojsko polskie we Francji, w Stanach Zjednoczonych i Rosji podczas I wojny światovej [The Sword Has Not Rusted. A Photography Catalog. The Polish Army in France, in the United States and in Russia during the First World War] (Warsaw, 2005), 15. Even prior to this, the Poles had some success in France. President Poincaré issued a decree on the creation of a Polish army in France on 4 July 1917.
200 Grew to H. Wilson, 17 Oct. 1917. HUL, Joseph. C. Grew Papers, Vol. 10.
201 May, Arthur J., The Passing of Hapsburg Monarchy 1914–1918, vol. I (Philadelphia/London, 1960)Google Scholar, 455.
202 “Italian Isonzo Front Collapses,” The New York Times, 30 Oct. 1917, 1.
203 Phillips, Diary entry, 29 Oct. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
204 Phillips, Diary entry, 31 Oct. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
205 T. N. to Lansing, 1 Oct. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 286.
206 T. N. Page to Wilson, 4 Nov. 1917, PWW 44, 506–9.
207 “Wants War on Austria,” The New York Times, 4 Nov. 1917, 2.
208 From Robert Lansing, with Enclosure, 5 Nov. 1917, PWW 44, 513–14.
209 Benedikt, Die Friedensaktion der Meinlgruppe, 193. In Berlin, Meinl met with the Secretary of the German Colonial Office Wilhelm Solf, his predecessor Bernhard Demburg, and others.
210 H. Wilson to Lansing, 22 Dec. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 483–84.
211 H. Wilson to Lansing, 28 Dec. 1917, FRUS, 1917, Suppl. 2, 511.
212 Benedikt, Die Friedensaktion der Meinlgruppe, 192–94.
213 Hohenlohe to Czernin, 10 Dec. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 175 P. A. III Preussen Weisungen, Varia 1917–1918. The Austro-Hungarian Ambassador to Berlin, Prince Gottfried zu Hohenlohe Schillingsfürst, did not consider Meinl's plans to be realistic.
214 Horčička, Václav, Rakousko-uherská politika vůči sovětskému Rusku v letech 1917–1918 [Austro-Hungarian Policy towards Soviet Russia Between 1917 and 1918] (Prague, 2005)Google Scholar, 64. Czernin threatened the Germans with a separate peace here.
215 Czernin to the Emperor, 16 Oct. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 1092a P. A. I. A personal union was to be created between reestablished Poland and Austria-Hungary.
216 Valiani, The End of Austria-Hungary, 280.
217 Károlyi, Gegen eine ganze Welt, 241.
218 Ebenda, 250.
219 Hugh Wilson, Diplomat between Wars, 39–42.
220 In his memoirs, Hugh Wilson cited that Károlyi was supposed to “create an Austro-Hungarian government.” In a report to Washington at the time, H. Wilson claimed that the count was supposed to enter the “Cabinet.” In that context, it became apparent that he meant the cabinet of the Kingdom of Hungary. Ibid. Wilson to Lansing, 26 Nov. 1917, FRUS 1917, Suppl. 2, 322–25.
221 Wilson to Lansing, 26 Nov. 1917, ibid.
222 Ibid.
223 Károlyi, Gegen eine ganze Welt, 413.
224 Rothwell, V. H., British War Aims and Peace Diplomacy, 1914–1918 (London, 1971)Google Scholar, 158.
225 House, Diary entry, 29 Nov. 1917. Yale University Library, Edward Mandell House Papers, Reel 4.
226 From Edward Mandell House, 15 Nov. 1917, PWW 45, S. 54. Another reason was the political crisis in France, when Painlevé's government fell. Georges Clemenceau became the new prime minister on 16 Nov. 1917.
227 Phillips, Diary entry, 12 Nov. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
228 Phillips, Diary entry, 13 Nov. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
229 Phillips, Diary entry, 14 Nov. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
230 From Robert Lansing, with Enclosure, 12 Nov. 1917, PWW 45, s. 30–38.
231 Unfriendly Acts of Austria, Summary of Attached Memorandum, 20 Nov. 1917. LC, The Papers of Lester H. Woolsey, Box 13. The approval was issued on 6 Oct. 1917.
232 Lansing to Wilson, 20 Nov. 1917, No. missing, NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 62.
233 “Austria and the United States,” The New York Times, 28 Nov. 1917, 12.
234 “Congress Opens, Members Favor War on Austria,” The New York Times, 4 Dec. 1917, 1.
235 Secret probes between the United States and Austria-Hungary continued in the winter of 1918. See: Briggs, Mitchell P., George D. Herron and the European Settlement (Stanford, 1932)Google Scholar, 77.
236 Phillips, Diary entry, 1 Dec. 1917, HUL. William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
237 From Cleveland Hoadley Dodge, 2 Dec. 1917, PWW 45, 186–86.
238 Phillips, Diary entry, 4 Dec. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
239 An Annual Message on the State of the Union, 4 Dec. 1917, PWW 45, 194–202.
240 Phillips, Diary entry, 4 Dec. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
241 “Austro-Hungarian Integrity,” The New York Times (8 Dec. 1917): 14.
242 Phillips, Diary entry, 7 Dec. 1917. HUL, William Phillips Papers, Box 1.
243 PWW 45, note 1, 224.
244 Czernin to Storck, 1 Dec. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 898 P. A. I.
245 Tagesbericht, 2 Dec. 1917, No. missing, HHStA, PA, Kt. 59 P. A. XL Interna. Tagesber. d. Min. d. Äuss. 1917 IX–1918 IV.
246 Demblin to Czernin, 6 Dec. 1917, No. 15. HHStA, PA, Kt. 263 P. A. XL Interna. Telegr. von Demblin 1917–1918.
247 Anfrage, 3 Dec. 1917, No. 26/ R. D./1917, HHStA, PA, Kt. 898 P. A. I.
248 H. Wilson to Lansing, 8 Dec. 1917, No. 2194. NA, RG 59, Microcopy 367, Reel 64.
249 Demblin to Czernin, 19 Dec. 1917, No. 36. HHStA, PA, Kt. 263 P. A. XL Interna Telegr. von Demblin 1917–1918.
250 President Wilson comments to Herbert Bruce Brougham of The New York Times, 14 Dec. 1914, sizing up the European conflict, in Hunt, Michael H., Crises in U. S. Foreign Policy: An International History Reader, Documents, No. 2 (New Haven/London, 1996)Google Scholar, 26.
251 May, Arthur J., “Woodrow Wilson and Austria Hungary to the End of 1917,” in Festschrift für Heinrich Benedikt, ed. Hantsch, Hugo and Novotny, Alexander (Vienna, 1957)Google Scholar, 214.