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The Austrian Empire, German Nationalism, and the Rhine Crisis of 18401

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 July 2016

Miroslav Šedivý
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Extract

The Rhine Crisis of 1840 has traditionally been understood as an important moment in the rise of German nationalism, when France's appeals for conquests on the Rhine were answered by the Germans in a negative way, surprising in its strength and extent. The defense of this “most German river” united people from various parts of the German Confederation as well as the various social classes, and support for the defense of the Rhine became a matter of national duty and honor. According to widespread opinion still shared by the majority of historians, the Rhine Crisis (Rheinkrise) was a national experience of crucial importance that transformed German nationalism into a mass and more aggressive movement.

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Austrian History Yearbook , Volume 47 , April 2016 , pp. 15 - 36
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Copyright © Center for Austrian Studies, University of Minnesota 2016 

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Footnotes

1

This article has been written as a part of the project “The Rhine Crisis of 1840,” financed by the Czech Science Foundation (GA ČR 13–03932S).

References

2 From the immense number of scholarly works containing this traditional evaluation see at least some of those published in past twenty-five years: Anselm Doering-Manteuffel, Die Deutsche Frage und das Europäische Staatensystem 1815–1871 (Munich, 1993), 18; Alexa Geisthövel, Restauration und Vormärz 1815–1847 (Munich, 2008), 45–46; Wolfgang Hardtwig, “Vom Elitebewußtsein zur Massenbewegung: Frühformen des Nationalismus in Deutschland 1500–1840,” in Nationalismus und Bürgerkultur in Deutschland 1500–1914, ed. Wolfgang Hardtwig (Göttingen, 1994), 34–54, at 49; Heinrich Lutz, Zwischen Habsburg und Preuβen: Deutschland 1815–1866 (Berlin, 1998), 201–4; Manfred Meyer, Freiheit und Macht: Studien zum Nationalismus süddeutscher, insbesondere badischer Liberaler 1830–1848 (Frankfurt, 1994), 206; Theodor Schieder, Vom Deutschen Bund zum Deutschen Reich 1815–1871 (Munich, 1999), 64; Heinrich August Winkler, Germany: The Long Road West, vol. 1, 1789–1933, trans. Alexander J. Sager (Oxford, 2006), 79.

3 Johannes Honsell, “Bayern und die Rheinkrise von 1840” (unpublished Diplomarbeit, LMU, Munich, 2002).

4 Brophy, James M., “The Rhine Crisis of 1840 and German Nationalism: Chauvinism, Skepticism, and Regional Reception,” Journal of Modern History 85, no. 1 (2013): 1–35 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 For Vienna the situation reports were published by Karl Glossy in Wien 1840–1848: Eine amtliche Chronik, part I, 1840–1844 (Vienna, 1917).

6 For the most detailed analysis of the Turko-Egyptian War of 1839–41 see Adolf Hasenclever, Die Orientalische Frage in den Jahren 1838–1841: Ursprung des Meerengenvertrages vom 13. Juli 1841 (Leipzig, 1914); Eugène de Guichen, La Crise d'Orient de 1839 à 1841 et l'Europe (Paris, 1921); Letitia W. Ufford, The Pasha: How Mehemet Ali Defied the West, 1839–1841 (Jefferson, 2007).

7 Honsell, “Bayern und die Rheinkrise von 1840,” 76–82.

8 Lagerheim to Ihre, Copenhagen, 15 Oct. 1840, Riksarkivet (Swedish National Archives), Stockholm, Beskickningsarkiv, Inkomna skrivelser, E2 D:306; Pallavicini to Solaro, Munich, 17 Oct. 1840, Archivio di Stato di Torino, Turin (hereafter: AST), Lettere ministri (hereafter: LM), Baviera 34; Hormayr to Ludwig I of Bavaria, Bremen, 31 Oct. 1840, Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, Munich (hereafter: BHStA), Ministerium des Äußern (hereafter: MA), Hansestädte 2293; Sers to Duchâtel, Strasbourg, 10 Nov. 1840, Archives du Ministère des affaires étrangères, Paris (hereafter: AMAE), Correspondance politique (hereafter: CP), Bavière 215; Bourgoing to Guizot, Munich, 22 Jan. 1841, Anton Chroust, Gesandschaftsberichte aus München 1814–1848, Abt. I: Die Berichte der französischen Gesandten, vol. IV, Die Berichte aus den ersten Jahren des Ministeriums Abel bis zum “Verfassungs-Verständnis” (vom November 1837 bis zum August 1843) (Munich, 1936), 229; Michaela Breil, Die Augsburger “Allgemeine Zeitung” und die Pressepolitik Bayerns: Ein Verlagsunternehmen zwischen 1815 und 1848 (Tübingen, 1996), 87–92; Hannelore Putz, “Konstitutioneller Staat und Zensur im Vormärz—das Königreich Bayern,” in Zensur im Vormärz: Pressefreiheit und Informationskontrolle in Europa, ed. Gabriele B. Clemens (Ostfildern, 2013), 83–103, at 102–3; Honsell, “Bayern und die Rheinkrise von 1840,” 35 and 84–93.

9 Colloredo to Metternich, Munich, 30 Oct. 1842, Anton Chroust, Gesandschaftsberichte aus München 1814–1848, Abt. II: Die Berichte der österreichischen Gesandten, vol. 3, Die Berichte aus der Zeit des Ministeriums Abel bis zur Thronentsagung König Ludwigs I. (vom November 1837 bis zum März 1848) (Munich, 1942), 177.

10 Honsell, “Bayern und die Rheinkrise von 1840,” 96–100.

11 In 1851 7.7 million Germans lived in the Austrian Empire. Milan Hlavačka, Jiří Kaše, Jan P. Kučera, Daniela Tinková, Velké dějiny zemí Koruny české, vol. XI.a, 1792–1860 (Prague, 2013), 414.

12 Maltzan to Frederick William IV, Vienna, 13 Dec. 1840, Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin (hereafter: GStA PK), HA III, Ministerium des Auswärtigen I (hereafter MdA I), 7360. This report has obviously been used, for example, by Heinrich von Srbik in Metternich: Der Staatsmann und der Mensch, vol. 2 (Munich, 1925), 78.

13 Bockelberg to Frederick William IV, Vienna, 20 Oct. 1840, GStA PK, HA III, MdA I, 6033.

14 For the traditional view see Donald E. Emerson, Metternich and the Political Police: Security and Subversion in the Hapsburg Monarchy (1815–1830) (The Hague, 1968), 150. For the revisionist approach refuting the denomination of Austria as a “European China” see Wilhelm Brauneder, Leseverein und Rechtskultur: Der Juridisch-politische Leseverein zu Wien 1840–1990 (Vienna, 1992), 39; Stella Musulin, Vienna in the Age of Metternich from Napoleon to Revolution 1805–1848 (London, 1975), 256; Alan Sked, Metternich and Austria: An Evaluation (Basingstoke and New York, 2008), 177.

15 Eduard Heyck, Die Allgemeine Zeitung 1798–1898: Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Presse (Munich, 1898), 251.

16 Hans-Martin Kirchner, “Joseph Anton v. Pilat, Chefredakteur des Österreichischen Beobachter und Korrespondent der Augsburger Allgemeinen Zeitung und die Berichterstattung über den griechischen Aufstand in der Augsburger Allgemeinen Zeitung von 1821 bis 1827,” in Europäischer Philhellenismus: Die europäische philhellenische Presse bis zur 1. Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. Evangelos Konstantinou (Frankfurt, 1994), 93–108; Josef Mühlhauser, “Die Geschichte des Österreichischer Beobachter von der Gründung bis zum Tode Friedrich von Gentz 1810–1832” (unpublished diss., University of Vienna, 1948), 111–13; Ernst Victor Zenker, Geschichte der Wiener Journalistik von den Anfängen bis zum Jahre 1848 (Vienna, 1892), 105.

17 Peter Evan Turnbull, Austria, 2 vols. (London, 1840), 2:268–9. Cf. Turnbull, Oesterreichs sociale und politische Zustände, trans. E. A. Moriarty (Leipzig, 1840), 200.

18 Julius Marx, Die österreichische Zensur im Vormärz (Vienna, 1959), 146–49.

19 Heyck, Die Allgemeine Zeitung 1798–1898, 164; Chvojka, Michal, “Die Zeitungen, Journale und die Pressepolitik des Fürsten Metternich und Grafen Sedlnitzky im Österreich des Vormärz,” Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Staatsarchivs 53 (2009): 123–51Google Scholar, at 140–42; Michal Chvojka, Josef Graf Sedlnitzky als Präsident der Polizei- und Zensurhofstelle in Wien (1817–1848): Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Staatspolizei in der Habsburgermonarchie (Frankfurt, 2010), 168–69; Breil, Die Augsburger “Allgemeine Zeitung,” 151–211; Sked, Metternich and Austria, 151.

20 As noted by Turnbull, Austria, 2:268–9, and Oesterreichs sociale und politische Zustände, 200.

21 Ibid., 201; Engel-Janosi, Friedrich, “Der Wiener juridisch-politische Leseverein: Seine Geschichte bis zur Märzrevolution,” Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte der Stadt Wien 4 (1923): 58–66 Google Scholar, at 63; Jan Heidler, Čechy a Rakousko v politických brožurách předbřeznových (Prague, 1920), 27; Brauneder, Leseverein und Rechtskultur, 130.

22 Michel Chevalier to Mrs Théophile Faure in St. Amand, Töplitz, 21 Sept. 1840, Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, Vienna (hereafter: HHStA), Staatskanzlei (hereafter: StK), Interiora–Intercepte, 30.

23 Pieter M. Judson, Wien brennt! Die Revolution von 1848 und ihr liberales Erbe (Vienna, 1998), 29; Isabel Weyrich, “Die Zensur als Mittel der Unterdrückung von liberalen Bestrebungen im österreichischen Vormärz 1830–1848” (unpublished diss., University of Vienna, 1975), 49–50.

24 The situation report (hereafter: SR), Carlsbad, 12 July 1841, Národní archiv, Prague (hereafter: NA), Pražské gubernium, tajné 1819–1848 (hereafter: PG), 43.

25 Novák, Miloslav, “Rakouská policie a politický vývoj v Čechách před r. 1848,” Sborník archivních prací 3 (1953): 43–167 Google Scholar, at 96; Brauneder, Leseverein und Rechtskultur, 40–44 and 121; Engel-Janosi, “Der Wiener juridisch-politische Leseverein,” 63–65; Heidler, Čechy a Rakousko v politických brožurách, 68; Musulin, Vienna in the Age of Metternich, 256.

26 For all see SR on Prague in March and April, Prague, 12 Apr. and 12 May 1840, NA, PG 43; SR on Vienna in March, May, July and December 1840, Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 12, 14, 16, 19, and 28.

27 Turnbull, Austria, 2:271, and Oesterreichs sociale und politische Zustände, 202.

28 Jakub B. Malý, “Mechmet Ali, mistokrál egyptský,” Dennice: Spis zábawný a ponaučný 1 (1840): 171–76; Jakub B. Malý, “Afganistan a Angličané,” Dennice: Spis zábawný a ponaučný 1 (1840): 210–30; Jakub B. Malý, “Abd-el Kader, emir Maskarský,” Dennice: Spis zábawný a ponaučný 2 (1840): 47–55.

29 Malý, “Mechmet Ali,” 171.

30 Unknown author, “Über die Presse in Österreich (1843),” in Jung Österreich: Dokumente und Materialien zur liberalen österreichischen Opposition 1835–1848, ed. Madeleine Rietra (Amsterdam, 1980), 45–56, at 47.

31 Sked, Metternich and Austria, 177.

32 ÖB, no. 271, 27 Sept. 1840.

33 ÖB, no. 220, 7 Aug. 1840; no. 222, 9 Aug. 1840; no. 225, 12 Aug. 1840; no. 236, 23 Aug. 1840; no. 251, 7 Sept. 1840; no. 270, 26 Sept. 1840; no. 282, 8 Oct. 1840.

34 ÖB, no. 239, 26 Aug. 1840; no. 265, 21 Sept. 1840; no. 266, 22 Sept. 1840; no. 267, 23 Sept. 1840.

35 ÖB, no. 226, 13 Aug. 1840 (in this issue no. 225 is erroneously written).

36 ÖB, no. 289, 15 Oct. 1840; no. 297, 23 Oct. 1840; no. 293, 19 Oct. 1840; no. 294, 20 Oct. 1840; no. 295, 21 Oct. 1840; no. 296, 22 Oct. 1840; no. 300, 26 Oct. 1840; no. 309, 4 Nov. 1840.

37 ÖB, no. 255, 11 Sept. 1840; no. 256, 12 Sept. 1840; no. 258, 14 Sept. 1840; no. 260, 16 Sept. 1840; no. 261, 17 Sept. 1840; no. 262, 18 Sept. 1840.

38 ÖB, no. 252, 8 Sept. 1840.

39 ÖB, no. 297, 23 Oct. 1840.

40 The ÖB also informed as to the reaction of the secondary countries endangered by the crisis, such as Belgium and Switzerland. ÖB, no. 248, 4 Sept. 1840; no. 300, 26 Oct. 1840; no. 302, 28 Oct. 1840; no. 310, 5 Nov. 1840; no. 322, 17 Nov. 1840; no. 328, 23 Nov. 1840; no. 333, 28 Nov. 1840; no. 338, 3 Dec. 1840.

41 ÖB, no. 289, 15 Oct. 1840; no. 299, 25 Oct. 1840; no. 300, 26 Oct. 1840; no. 302, 28 Oct. 1840; no. 306, 1 Nov. 1840; no. 313, 8 Nov. 1840; no. 316, 11 Nov. 1840; Wiener Zeitung, no. 301, 30 Oct. 1840.

42 ÖB, no. 291, 17 Oct. 1840; no. 298, 24 Oct. 1840; no. 307, 2 Nov. 1840; no. 317, 12 Nov. 1840; no. 336, 1 Dec. 1840.

43 ÖB, no. 335, 30 Nov. 1840. The answer to Austria's benevolence to Arndt during the Rhine Crisis can probably be found in the opinion of the Sardinian envoy in Vienna that whereas Rotteck was a liberal and, therefore, still deeply disliked by the Austrian cabinet, Arndt was primarily regarded as a German nationalist and not as radical as the former. Sambuy to Solaro, Vienna, 17 Sept. 1840, AST, LM, Austria 137.

44 On the interest in Ottoman events see, for example, SR on Vienna in February and April 1840, Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 11 and 16.

45 SR on Prague in July, August, September, October, and November, Prague, 13 Aug., 13 Sept., 12 Oct., 12 Nov., and 14 Dec. 1840, NA, PG, 43; SR on Brünn in October, November, and December, Brünn, 12 Nov. and 16 Dec. 1840, 15 Jan. 1841, Moravský zemský archiv, Brno (hereafter: MZA), Policejní ředitelství (hereafter: PŘ), 95; Witenburg's SR on Graz in August 1840, 10 Sept. 1840, HHStA, Kabinettsarchiv (hereafter: KA), Staatsrat (hereafter: StR), Minister-Kolowrat Akten (1826–1848) (hereafter: MKA), 152; Witenburg's SR on Graz in September 1840, 10 Oct. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 153; Sedlnitzky's SR on Graz in November 1840, 10 Dec. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Innsbruck in August 1840, 17 Sept. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 152; Sedlnitzky's SR on Prague in August 1840, 30 Sept. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 153; Sedlnitzky's SR on Prague in September 1840, 16 Oct. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 153; Sedlnitzky's SR on Prague in October 1840, 28 Nov. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Prague in November 1840, 18 Dec. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Prague in December 1840, 18 Jan. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 155; Sedlnitzky's SR on Ljubljana and Klagenfurt in August 1840, 29 Sept. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 153; Sedlnitzky's SR on Ljubljana and Klagenfurt in October and November 1840, 29 Nov. and 23 Dec. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Brünn in August 1840, 29 Sept. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 153; Sedlnitzky's SR on Brünn in October 1840, 28 Nov. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Innsbruck in September and October 1840, 10 Oct. and 10 Nov. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 153; Sedlnitzky's SR on Innsbruck in November 1840, 8 Dec. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Innsbruck in December 1840, 16 Jan. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 155; Sedlnitzky's SR on Lemberg in September and October 1840, 4 and 10 Nov. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 153; Sedlnitzky's SR on Lemberg in November 1840, 11 Dec. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Linz in June, July, August, and September 1840, 6 Nov. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 153; Sedlnitzky's SR on Linz in October, November, and December 1840, 21 Feb. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 156; Sedlnitzky's SR on Vienna in August and September 1840, 19 Nov. and 10 Dec. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Vienna in October 1840, 16 Jan. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 155; Sedlnitzky's SR on Vienna in November and December 1840, 4 Feb. and 4 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 156; SR on Vienna in August, September, October, November, and December 1840, Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 22–29.

46 Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 277. See also Effinger-Wildegg to Muralt, Vienna, 21 Dec. 1840, Schweizerisches Bundesarchiv, Bern (hereafter: BAR), D0#1000/3#1163*, Az. D.1.1, 1814–1848.

47 Sedlnitzky's SR on Lemberg in September 1840, 4 Nov. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 153.

48 Sedlnitzky's SR on Linz in October, November, and December 1840, 21 Feb. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 156; Sedlnitzky's SR on Vienna in February 1841, 29 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 157; Chotek to Ferdinand I, Prague, 23 Jan. and 23 July 1841, NA, PG, 43.

49 SR on Prague in September, October, and November, Prague, 12 Oct., 12 Nov., and 14 Dec. 1840, NA, PG, 43; Sedlnitzky's SR on Vienna in November 1840, 4 Feb. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 156; SR on Vienna in November 1840, Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 26; AZ, no. 248, 4 Sept. 1840, 1983.

50 SR on Prague in November, 14 Dec. 1840, NA, PG, kart. 43; Sedlnitzky's SR on Prague in November 1840, 18 Dec. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Vienna in January 1840, 21 Mar. 1841, Sedlnitzky's SR on Ljubljana and Klagenfurt in February 1841, 22 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 157; AZ, no. 288, 14 Oct. 1840, 2303.

51 SR on Prague in January, February, March, April, and May, Prague, 13 Feb., 12 Mar., 15 Apr., 15 May and 12 June 1841, NA, PG, 43; Sedlnitzky's SR on Brünn in January 1841, 5 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 156; Sedlnitzky's SR on Brünn in February 1841, 22 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 157; Sedlnitzky's SR on Ljubljana and Klagenfurt in January 1841, 4 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 156; Sedlnitzky's SR on Ljubljana and Klagenfurt in February 1841, 22 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 157; Sedlnitzky's SR on Innsbruck in February 1841, 10 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 156; Sedlnitzky's SR on Linz in January 1841, 20 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 157; Sedlnitzky's SR on Vienna in January and February 1840, 21 and 29 Mar. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 157; Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 56–70.

52 Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 28–29.

53 According to Karl Glossy the melodies to Becker's song were composed in Austria by Adalbert Gyrowetz (Vojtěch Matyáš Jírovec), Gottfried von Preyer, and Adolf Müller the elder. Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 268.

54 SR on Brünn in October 1840, Brünn, 12 Oct. 1840, MZA, PŘ, 95; AZ, no. 281, 7 Oct. 1840, 2247. In the same month similar professional assemblies of philologists in Gotha and natural scientists in Erlangen from all German states took place where the “common German consciousness” was clearly evident. Irmline Veit-Brause, Die deutsch-französische Krise von 1840: Studien zur deutschen Einheitsbewebung (Cologne, 1967), 124.

55 Michel Chevalier to various addressees, Töplitz, 21 Sept. 1840, Prague, 1, 2, 3, 10 and 16 Oct. 1840, HHStA, StK, Interiora–Intercepte, 30.

56 Milan Řepa, Moravané, Němci, Rakušané: Vlasti moravských Němců v 19. století (Prague, 2014), 19–57. It is necessary to admit that in other parts of the Austrian Empire the attitudes of German-speaking Austrians could differ. For example, in northern Bohemia, which was more remote from Vienna and closer to Saxony, from where the prohibited literature was smuggled, greater sympathies for German nationalism could be expected. However, the necessary research on this area has never been made to support or dismiss this assertion. Jitka Lněničková, České země v době předbřeznové 1792–1848 (Prague, 1999), 158.

57 Antal Mádl, Politische Dichtung in Österreich (1830–1848) (Budapest, 1969); Otto Rommel, ed. and intro., Die politische Lyrik des Vormärz und des Sturmjahres (Vienna, 1912).

58 Peter Kuranda, Grossdeutschland und Grossösterreich bei den Hauptvertretern der deutsch-österreichischen Literatur 1830–1848 (Vienna, 1928), 80.

59 Ibid., 81–82; Julia Gsertz, “Jung-Österreich und sein Verhältnis zur deutschen und französischen Literatur: Eine Darstellung anhand von Moritz Hartmann und Alfred Meiβner” (unpublished diss., University of Vienna, 2010), 112; Adam Wandruszka, “Grossdeutsche und kleindeutsche Ideologie 1840–1871,” in Deutschland und Österreich: Ein bilaterales Geschichtsbuch, ed. Robert A. Kann and Friedrich E. Prinz (Vienna, 1980), 110–42, at 110–11.

60 Such a reference without any value can be found, for example, in Ferdinand Leopold Schirnding's Böhmens Zukunft und Oesterreichs Politik vom Standpunkte der Vergangenheit und Gegenwart, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1844), 2:10.

61 Franz Schuselka, Deutsche Worte eines Österreichers (Hamburg, 1843), 38–39. For the eventual influence of the Rhine Crisis on Franz Schuselka's activities see also Jiří Kořalka, Češi v habsburské říši a v Evropě 1815–1914: Sociálněhistorické souvislosti vytváření novodobého národa a národnostní otázky v českých zemích (Prague, 1996), 30 and 72.

62 Ignaz Kuranda, ed., Die Grenzboten: Blätter für Deutschland und Belgien (Leipzig, 1841), 5–7.

63 Ibid., 52.

64 In this respect Maltzan reported on 13 November about “the good and patriotic tendencies of the general German public in Austria.” Maltzan to Frederick William IV, Vienna, 13 Nov. 1840, GStA PK, HA III, MdA I, 6033.

65 Rochus to Frederick William IV, Stuttgart, 3 Oct. 1841, GStA PK, HA III, MdA I, 4427.

66 Austensen, Roy A., “ Einheit oder Einigkeit? Another Look at Metternich's View of the German Dilemma,” German Studies Review 6, no. 1 (1983): 41–57 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 44–47.

67 Robert D. Billinger Jr., Metternich and the German Question: State's Rights and Federal Duties, 1820–1834 (Newark and London, 1991), 12.

68 Alexander Novotny, “Oesterreich und Preussen in den Jahren 1840–1848: Eine militärisch-politische Studie” (unpublished diss., University of Vienna, Vienna, 1928), 42.

69 Veit-Brause, Die deutsch-französische Krise von 1840, 69.

70 Ibid., 67.

71 See also, for example, Metternich to Meysenburg, Vienna, 29 May 1841, HHStA, StA, Russland III, 123.

72 Metternich to Trauttmansdorff, 19 Oct. 1841, Novotny, “Oesterreich und Preussen,” Appendix, 140.

73 Metternich to Radetzky, Vienna, 23 Oct. 1841, Nicomede Bianchi, ed., Storia documentata della diplomazia europea in Italia dall'anno 1814 all'anno 1861, vol. 3, Anni 1830–1846 (Turin, 1867), 368.

74 Rochus to Frederick William IV, Stuttgart, 3 Oct. 1841, GStA PK, HA III, MdA I, 4427; Mandelsloh to William I of Württemberg, Vienna, 12 Dec. 1841, HHStA, StK Interiora–Intercepte, 34; Hans-Werner Hahn, Geschichte des Deutschen Zollvereins (Göttingen, 1984), 130.

75 Sambuy to Solaro, Vienna, 18 Apr. 1841, Mario degli Alberti, ed., La politica estera del Piemonte sotto Carlo Alberto Secondo il carteggio diplomatico del Conte Vittorio Amedeo Balbo Bertone di Sambuy ministro di Sardegna a Vienna (1835–1846), vol. II, 1839–1841 (Turin, 1915), 480.

76 Guichen, La Crise d'Orient, 419. Guichen offered no evidence for his claim that Metternich had allowed the printing of Becker's song, and neither a single sheet printed in Austria nor the publication of it in an Austrian newspaper has ever been found by the author of this article. However, the Austrians were able to read the text in foreign German journals, for example, in the AZ, no. 311, 6 Nov. 1840, 2485.

77 Lerchenfeld to Ludwig I of Bavaria, Vienna, 30 Oct. and 25 Nov. 1840, BHStA, MA, Wien, 2409; O'Sullivan to Lebeau, Vienna, 10 Nov. 1840, Archives diplomatiques et africaines, Brussels (hereafter: ADA), Correspondances Politiques (hereafter: CP), Autriche 7; Effinger-Wildegg to Muralt, Vienna, 11 Nov. 1840, BAR, D0#1000/3#1163*, Az. D.1.1, 1814–1848; Maltzan to Frederick William IV, Vienna, 13 Nov. 1840, GStA PK, HA III, MdA I, 6033; Sambuy to Solaro, Vienna, 13 Nov. 1840, Alberti, La politica estera del Piemonte, 399; Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 267.

78 Hlavačka, Kaše, Kučera, Tinková, Velké dějiny zemí Koruny české, 329; Musulin, Vienna in the Age of Metternich, 270.

79 Helmut Rumpler, Eine Chance für Mitteleuropa: Bürgerliche Emanzipation und Staatsverfall in der Habsburgermonarchie, volume 9 in the series Österreichische Geschichte 1804–1914, ed. Herwig Wolfram (Vienna, 2005), 209.

80 Waltraud Heindl, Gehorsame Rebellen: Bürokratie und Beamte in Österreich, vol. 1, 1780 bis 1848 (Vienna, 1991), 213–17; Robert A. Kann, Das Nationalitätenproblem der Habsburgermonarchie: Geschichte und Ideengehalt der nationalen Bestrebungen vom Vormärz bis zur Auflösung des Reiches im Jahre 1918, 2 vols. (Graz, 1964), 1:61–72; Eduard Winter, Romantismus, Restauration und Frühliberalismus im österreichischen Vormärz (Vienna, 1968), 197; Heidler, Čechy a Rakousko v politických brožurách, 184–86; Rumpler, Eine Chance für Mitteleuropa, 213–14 and 269; Řepa, Moravané, Němci, Rakušané, 33.

81 Řepa, Moravané, Němci, Rakušané, 41.

82 Jiří Rak, Zachovej nám, Hospodine: Češi v Rakouském císařství 1804–1918 (Prague, 2013), 28–58.

83 Magenis to Aberdeen, Vienna, 12 Sept. 1845, the National Archives of the United Kingdom, London (hereafter: TNA), Foreign Office (hereafter: FO) 7, 323.

84 Sked, Metternich and Austria, 185.

85 For the activities of Archduke Frederick during the Syrian campaign see Robert L. Dauber, Erzherzog Friedrich von Österreich (Graz, 1993), 87–117.

86 SR on Prague in October, November, and December 1840, Prague, 12 Nov. and 14 Dec. 1840, 13 Jan. 1841, NA, PG, 43; SR on Brünn in October and November 1840, Brünn, 12 Nov. and 16 Dec. 1840, MZA, PŘ, 95; Sedlnitzky's SR on Prague in October and November 1840, 28 Nov. and 18 Dec. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; Sedlnitzky's SR on Prague in December 1840, 18 Jan. 1841, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 155; Sedlnitzky's SR on Brünn in October 1840, 28 Nov. 1840, Sedlnitzky's SR on Ljubljana and Klagenfurt in October 1840, 29 Nov. 1840, Sedlnitzky's SR on Innsbruck in November 1840, 8 Dec. 1840, HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154; SR on Vienna in September, October, November, and December 1840, Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 27. It is possible and simultaneously useful to pose the question whether the situation reports did not exaggerate the degree of “enthusiasm” of the Austrians for Frederick's successes. However, regarding the immense popularity of the Habsburg family, extraordinary attention paid to the Syrian campaign in the public, the content of foreign diplomats' reports and the enlistment of a considerable number of young Austrian men from the transalpine provinces of the monarchy to the k. k. navy after 1840 it is not necessary to doubt that, as the governor of Bohemia, Count Karl Chotek of Chotkow and Wognin, wrote to Ferdinand I in January 1841, the news of Frederick's activities in Syria were received by the people with “joy and pride.” Chotek to Ferdinand I, Prague, 23 Jan. 1841, NA, PG, 43.

87 Printed sheet “Erzherzog Friedrich auf den Mauern von Saida: An Se. k. k. Hoheit den Erzherzog Karl von Oesterreich: Von M. S. Saphir,” HHStA, KA, StR, MKA, 154.

88 Ibid.

89 Ibid.

90 It is not without interest that the Dutch Royal Archives house a printed poem written during the crisis by Austrian professor Karl J. J. Flügel and dedicated to the new Dutch king, William II, celebrating the unity of the rulers belonging to the German Confederation that is considered here to be the equivalent to the German fatherland. The writing of this poem seems to be motivated by the Austrian government's reaction to the crisis, though the Rhine is not explicitly mentioned, and the accession of William II to the throne, with the aim of reminding him about his federal duties. This “federal propaganda” stood not only for the attitude of the Austrian government but also for the overwhelming majority of Austrians. Volkshymne der Teutschen zur feierlichen Erinnerung an die Bruderbande, womit sie Bundesacte vom 8ten Juni 1815 zu Wien geschaffne “Unauflösliche Teutsche Bund” umschlingt: Von Karl J. J. Flügel, k. k. Professor der teutschen Sprache und Literatur am Lyceum zu Udine, attached to Flügel to William II, Vienna, 20 Oct. 1840, Nationaal Archief, the Hague, Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken 1813–1870, 2.05.01, 1209.

91 Üchtritz to Lindenau, Vienna, 10 Mar. 1841, Sächsisches Staatsarchiv, Hauptstaatsarchiv Dresden, Sächsische Gesandschaften, Wien, 94; Lerchenfeld to Ludwig I of Bavaria, Vienna, 12 Mar. 1841, BHStA, MA, Wien, 2410; Maltzan to Frederick William IV, Vienna, 12 Mar. 1841, GStA PK, HA III, MdA I, 6034; O'Sullivan to Lebeau, Vienna, 15 Mar. 1841, ADA, CP, Autriche, 8; Renate Basch-Ritter, Österreich auf allen Meeren: Geschichte der k. (u.) k. Kriegsmarine von 1382 bis 1918 (Graz, 1987), 48.

92 Bresson to Guizot, Berlin, 19 Aug. 1841, AMAE, CP, Prusse 296; Russell to Palmerston, Berlin, 25 Aug. 1841, TNA, FO 64/233; Sambuy to Solaro, Vienna, 12 Sept. 1841, Alberti, La politica estera del Piemonte, 547; Glossy, Wien 1840–1848, 268; Meyer, Freiheit und Macht, 207.