¹ See Deák, István, “Pacesetters of Integration: Jewish Officers in the Habsburg Monarchy,” Eastern European Politics and Societies 3 (Winter 1989): 22–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The naval officer corps, however, contained few Jews. From 1848 to 1918, only thirty-four Jews secured commissions and only five of those were actual sea officers, the rest serving as physicians and engineers. See Sondhaus, Lawrence, “The Austro-Hungarian Naval Officer Corps, 1867–1918,” Austrian History Yearbook 24 (1993): 60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

² Cecil, Lamar, The German Diplomatic Service, 1871–1914 (Princeton, N.J., 1976), 94–103Google Scholar.

³ The other two branches were the consular service and the central office personnel. Diplomats called home to fill important leadership positions in the Ballhausplatz, especially the posts of section chief and the departmental directorships in the political division, dominated the latter in addition to the diplomatic corps.

⁴ See Godsey, William D. Jr, “Aristocratic Redoubt: The Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office on the Eve of the First World War” (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 1994), esp. chap. 1Google Scholar.

⁵ Little work has been done explicitly on the interrelationship of the nobility with people of Jewish heritage in the monarchy. For Central Europe in general, see the following purely introductory articles: sMarkreich, Max, “Jüdisches Blut im ‘arischen’ Adel,” jüdische Familien-Forschung 25 (03 1931): 344–46Google Scholar; and, Kahn, Ernst, “Zum Thema: Jüdisches Blut im ‘arischen’ Adel,” Jüdische Familien-Forschung 26 (06 1931): 353–54Google Scholar. For Great Britain, see Euler, Wilfried, “Das Eindringen jüdischen Blutes in die englische Oberschicht,” Forschungen zur Juden Frage 6 (1941): 104–252Google Scholar, an article marred by its unfortunate title and date and place of publication (Berlin), but otherwise sound in its impressive range and scholarship. For a list of Italian noble families of Jewish ancestry, see Schärf, Samuele, “Jüdischer Adel in Italien,” Jüdische Familien-Forschung 11 (09 1927): 265–66Google Scholar.

⁶ See Rozenblit, Marsha L., “The Jews of the Dual Monarchy,” Austrian History Yearbook 23 (1992): 179CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ See especially Rozenblit, Marsha L., The Jews of Vienna, 1867–1914: Assimilation and Identity (Albany, N.Y., 1983)Google Scholar.

⁸ Bihl, Wolfdieter, “Die Juden,” in Die Völker des Reiches, vol. 3 pt. 2 of Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848–1918, ed. Wandruszka, Adam and Urbanitsch, Peter (Vienna, 1980), 921Google Scholar; McCagg, William O., Jewish Nobles and Geniuses in Modern Hungary, East European Monographs, no. 3 (Boulder, Colo., 1972), 21Google Scholar.

⁹ For the “second society,” see Wandruszka, Adam, “Die ‘zweite Gesellschaft’ der Donaumonarchie,” in Adel in Österreich, ed. Sieghart, Heinz (Vienna, 1971)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Stourzh, Gerald, “The Multinational Empire Revisited: Reflections on Late Imperial Austria,” Austrian History Yearbook 23 (1992): 6–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹ For a contemporary biography of Rizius, see Pantaleon, Heinrich, Der dritte und letste Theil teutscher Nation warhafften Helden (Basel, 1578), 61–62Google Scholar.

¹² Schnee, Heinrich, Hoffaktoren an süddeutschen Fürstenhöfen nebst Studien zur Geschichte des Hoffaktorentums in Deutschland, vol. 4, Die Hoffinanz und der moderne Staat. Geschichte und System der Hoffaktoren an deutschen Fürstenhöfen im Zeitalter des Absolutismus (Berlin, 1963), 312–13Google Scholar.

¹³ For a list of the Jewish families ennobled in the western part of the Habsburg monarchy between 1511 and 1918, see Jäger-Sunstenau, Harms, “Die geadelten Judenfamilien im vormärzlichen Wien,” 2 vols. (Ph.D. diss., University of Vienna, 1950), 1:88–91Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Bihl, “Die Juden,” 940–41.

¹⁵ See the Berchtold genealogy by Johann Baptist Witting in folder Berchtold, Nachlaβ Johann Baptist Witting/Hans von Bourcy, Schrenck Library, Charlottesville, Va.; Martin, Franz, Hundert salzburger Familien (Salzburg, 1946), 74–75Google Scholar; and von Haan, Friedrich Freiherr, “Genealogische Auszüge aus den beim bestandenen niederösterreichischen Landmarschall'schen Gerichte publicierten Testamenten,” Jahrbuch der k. k. heraldischen Gesellschaft “Adler,” Folge, Neue, vol. 10 (1900): 95Google Scholar. Wiβgrill, Franz Karl, Schauplatz des landsässigen nieder'-oesterreichischen Adels vom Herren- und Ritterstande, 51 vols. (Vienna, 1794–1824), 1:339–40Google Scholar, falsely lists Jakob Berchtold's second wife, Maria Magdalena Hegenmüller, rather than his third wife, Regina von Rizius, as the mother of Berchtold's ancestor. Foreign Minister Berchtold also possessed more recent Jewish connections through his great-great-grandfather, Count Prosper Anton Berchtold (1720–1807), whose second wife, Eleonora Thekla Gottlieb (d. 1783), was a baptized Jew. Leopold Berchtold descended, however, from Prosper Anton's first wife. See Jäger-Sunstenau, “Die geadelten Judenfamilien,” 1:55.

¹⁶ Wurzbach, Constant von, Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich, 60 vols. (Vienna, 1878), 36:279–92Google Scholar.

¹⁷ The sixteen great-great-grandparents of Hugo Henikstein (b. 1910), whose family had converted little more than one hundred years before his birth, included Josef von Henikstein, Elisabeth Zacher von Sonnenstein, Franz von Scholl, Santina von Resic, Count Josef Ledóchowski, Maria von Zakrewska, Count Hugo Logothetti, Baroness Paula Bartenstein, Count Moritz O'Donell, Princess Christine de Ligne, Count Johann Franz Hardegg, Countess Franziska Choiseul, Count Georg Thurn-Valsassina, Countess Emilie Chorinsky, Count Ferdinand Pálffy, and Princess Sidonie Lobkowitz. Note the many families of the aristocracy represented in this list. For Henikstein's Ahnentafel, see Jäger-Sunstenau, “Die geadelten Judenfamilien,” 1:59–60.

¹⁸ For other examples of such marriages, see Schnee, “Adel aus dem Hoffaktorentum,” chap, in Hoffaktoren an süddeutschen Furstenhöfen, 311–45; and Hanns Jäger-Sunstenau, “Die Nachkommen des Karl Raphael Ritter Joel von Joelson” (unpublished), folder Joelson, Nachlaβ Johann Baptist Witting/Hans von Bourcy, Schrenck Library, Charlottesville, Va.

¹⁹ For suggestions on the role of the “Gentile environment” in marriage patterns among the Jewish economic elite in imperial Germany, see Mosse, W. E., The German-Jewish Economic Élite, 1820–1935: A Socio-cultural Profile (Oxford, 1989), 182–85Google Scholar.

²⁰ For a sample of marriages between aristocratic males of at least the rank of count and women from Jewish backgrounds during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see the appendix. Many other noblemen beneath the rank of count had also concluded marriages with women from Jewish or formerly Jewish families. A Jewish heritage was also introduced into the high nobility via unions between aristocratic males and women drawn from the monarchy's “second society” of bureaucratic and entrepreneurial nobility, many of whom were allied with families of Jewish origin. The marriages of Count Hermann Künigl (1866–1910) with Friederike von Reininghaus (1876–1941), whose mother belonged to the Jewish entrepreneurial family Mautner-Markhof, and of Count Karl Kornis (1869–1918) with Baroness Irma Fejérváry (1869–1950), whose mother belonged to the wealthy Jewish commercial family of Biedermann, provide only two of many examples of such connections.

²¹ Ruziczka, Leon, “Die Nachkommen des Salomon Edlen von Herz,” Monatsblatt der heratdischen Gesellschaft “Adler” 9 (1931): 17–31Google Scholar.

²² Exceptions to this practice include Beller, Steven, Vienna and the Jews, 1867–1938: A Cultural History (Cambridge, Engl., 1989)Google Scholar; Bihl, “Die Juden” and McCagg, Jewish Nobles.

²³ Perl, Walter H., ed., Hugo von Hofmannsthal—Leopold von Andrian Briefwechsel (Frankfurt am Main, 1968), 45Google Scholar.

²⁴ Treichel, James A., “Magyars at the Ballhausplatz: A Study of the Hungarians in the Austro-Hungarian Diplomatic Service, 1906–1914” (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1971), 174Google Scholar.

²⁵ Matsch, Erwin, ed., November 1918 auf dem Ballhausplatz. Erinnerungen Ludwigs Freiherrn von Flotow des letzten Chefs des österreichisch-ungarischen auswärtigen Dienstes 1895–1920 (Vienna, 1982), 61Google Scholar.

²⁶ Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 11–13. For Hofmannsthal's paternal and maternal ancestry, see Czellitzer, Arthur, “Die Ahnentafel des Dichters Hugo von Hofmannsthal,” Jüdische FamilienForschung 19 (09 1929): 176–77Google Scholar.

²⁷ In her book on the Jews in Vienna, Rozenblit suggests, using the work of the sociologist Milton Gordon, that total assimilation occurred through intermarriage (Rozenblit, The Jews of Vienna, 3). In a later essay, she chastises Steven Beller for allegedly counting “anyone who had any Jewish ancestor at all as a Jew.” She concedes only that converts or possibly the children of converts might have “experienced their Jewish backgrounds,” arguing that “surely that experience ended at some point” (Rozenblit, “The Jews of the Dual Monarchy,” 177–78). Plenty of evidence, however, indicates that the restrictive definition adopted by Rozenblit is no less unsatisfactory than Beller's and is perhaps less realistic, given the actuality of social and racial anti-Semitism in fin-de-siècle Austria-Hungary. On this point, see also Pulzer, Peter, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (no place, 1964), 6Google Scholar.

²⁸ Baron Otto Franz, a diplomat who through his mother belonged to the Wittgenstein family, may well have imbibed the tradition of “aesthetic idealism” that the Wittgensteins felt they had preserved as an element of their own Jewish patrimony. See Janik, Allan and Toulmin, Stephen, Wittgenstein's Vienna (New York, 1973), 172–73Google Scholar.

²⁹ See the Erlass des kais. und kön. Ministeriums des Aeussern vom 13. December 1880, betreffend die Erfordernisse für den Eintritt in den innem oder äussern Conceptsdienst dieses Ministeriums, Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv (Vienna) (HHStA), Administrative Registratur (AR), Fach 6, carton 39, folder Dipl. Prüfung I Diverse. Cf. “Verordnung des k. und k. Ministeriums des k. und k. Hauses und des Äuβern vom 20. Jänner 1914, Z. 10/2, betreffend die Erfordernisse für den Eintritt in den Konzeptsdienst dieses Ministeriums oder in den diplomatischen Dienst,” in Jahrbuch des k. und k. auswärtigen Dienstes (Vienna, 1915), 449–52Google Scholar.

³⁰ Sieghart, Rudolf, Die letzten Jahrzehnte einer Grossmacht. Menschen, Völker, Probleme des Habsburger-Reichs (Berlin, 1932), 229Google Scholar.

³¹ This figure includes Greek Catholics, or Uniates, as well. Figures for the religious affiliations of the inhabitants of Cisleithania are drawn from “Tabelle 5: Die konfessionelle Gliederung der Nationalitäten in Cisleithanien 1900 und 1910,” in Die Völker des Reichs, vol. 3, pt. 1 of Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848–1918, ed. Wandruszka and Urbanitsch, 54–55.

³² Figures for religious affiliations of the general population in Transleithania are drawn from László Katus, “Die Magyaren,” in Die Völker des Reiches, vol. 3, pt. 1 of Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848–1918, ed. Wandruszka and Urbanitsch, 441.

³³ Jászi, Oscar, The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy (Chicago, 1966), 161–62Google Scholar.

³⁴ Vermes, Gabor, István Tisza: The Liberal Vision and Conservative Statecraft of a Magyar Nationalist, East European Monographs, no. 184 (New York, 1985), 18Google Scholar.

³⁵ Sieghart, Die letzten Jahrzehnte einer Grossmacht, 35; Kinsky-Wilczek, Elisabeth, ed., Hans Wilczek erzählt seinen Enkeln Erinnerungen aus seinem Leben (Graz, 1933), 63Google Scholar.

³⁶ Kinsky-Wilczek, ed., Hans Wilczek, 386.

³⁷ Wistrich, Robert S., The Jews of Vienna in the Age of Franz Joseph (New York, 1989), 186Google Scholar.

³⁸ Ibid., 179.

³⁹ For Princess Metternich and the Rothschilds, see Fugger, Princess Nora, The Glory of the Habsburgs: The Memoirs of Princess Fugger, trans. Galston, J. A. (New York, 1932), 42–44Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Pauley, Bruce F., From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), 22Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Ibid.

⁴² Wistrich, Jews of Vienna, 176.

⁴³ Deák, István, Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps, 1848–1918 (New York, 1990), 133Google Scholar; Cf. Schmidl, Erwin A., Juden in der k. (u.) k. Armee 1788–1918, Studia Judaica Austriaca, vol. 11 (Eisenstadt, 1989), 135Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Wistrich, Jews of Vienna, 173–74.

⁴⁵ Wank, Solomon, “A Case of Aristocratic Antisemitism in Austria: Count Aehrenthal and the Jews, 1878–1907,” in Leo Baeck Yearbook 30 (London, 1985), 453–56Google Scholar. For an example of his earlier views, see Aehrenthal to his mother, Aug. 6, 1884, Briefe und Dokumente zur Geschichte der österreichisch-ungarischen Monarchie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des böhmisch-mährischen Raumes. Teil I: Der Verfassungstreue Groβgrundbesitz 1880–1899, ed. Rutkowski, Ernst, Veröffentlichungen des Collegium Carolinum, vol. 51/1 (Munich, 1983), no. 22Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Wank, “A Case of Aristocratic Antisemitism,” 454.

⁴⁷ Berchtold to Aehrenthal, Aug. 15 [year unknown], HHStA, Nachlaβ Aehrenthal, carton 1: “Carlsbad ist reich besetzt mit Juden & duftet nach ausgelufteten Bettzeuge.”

⁴⁸ Mérey to his stepmother, Marianna von Mérey, Feb. 27, 1901, HHStA, Nachlaβ Mérey, carton 4. Since the research for this article was completed, the Nachlaβ Mérey has been reorganized and recataloged by Dr. Lajos Gecsényi, the Hungarian liaison archivist at the Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv in Vienna. The carton numbers may therefore no longer correspond.

⁴⁹ Mérey to Aehrenthal, Sept. 13, 1905, HHStA, Nachlaβ Aehrenthal, carton 3. Mérey wrote, “Für die Posten eines Civilagenten kommen erst nur die Generalkonsuln Ippen und Oppenheimer in Betracht. Ersteren hielte ich für intelligenter und er hätte, obgleich er auch Judenstämmling ist, nicht so einen penetrant jüdischen Namen.”

⁵⁰ James A. Treichel, “Magyars at the Ballhausplatz,” 174.

⁵¹ Esterházy to Aehrenthal, Sept. 5, 1896, HHStA, Nachlaβ Aehrenthal, carton 5.

⁵² Fürstenberg to Berchtold, Nov. 26, 1907, Moravský zemský Archiv (Brno) (MZA), Rodinny archiv Berchtoldū, carton 134, folder 464/12, fols. 24–29.

⁵³ Czernin to Francis Ferdinand, memorandum dated Feb. 1909, HHStA, Nachlaß Franz Ferdinand, carton 12.

⁵⁴ Count Anton. Wolkenstein-Trostburg served as ambassador to France from 1894 to 1903.

⁵⁵ Czernin to Francis Ferdinand, memorandum dated Feb. 1909, HHStA, Nachlaß Franz Ferdinand, carton 12.

⁵⁶ Weimarer historisch-genealoges Taschenbuch des gesamten Adels jehudäischen Ursprunges (Weimar, 1912), 281Google Scholar. This work and the one published under the same title in Munich the following year are better known under the name Semi-Gotha.

⁵⁷ Weimarer historisch-genealoges Taschenbuch des gesamten Adels jehudäischen Ursprunges (Munich, 1913), 77–78Google Scholar. The Semi-Gotha retracted its assertion that the Wickenburgs were originally Jewish. The two issues of the Semi-Gotha attributed Jewish origins to the families of twenty-six diplomats and Ballhausplatz officials.

⁵⁸ See the thorough discussion, based on archival sources, of Aehrenthal's family background in Wank, Solomon, “A Note on the Genealogy of a Fact: Aehrenthal's Jewish Ancestry,” journal of Modern History 14, no. 3 (09 1969): 319ndash;26CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁹ Hueck, Walter v., ed., Adelslexikon, vol. 3, Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels (Limburg an der Lahn, 1975), 118Google Scholar. The family had been ennobled as “Eißner von und zu Eisenstein.”

⁶⁰ Wank, “A Note on the Genealogy of a Fact,” 325. Aehrenthal's closest, albeit still remote, connection to a Jewish clan came through his brother-in-law, Count Simon Wimpffen, whose grandmother, Marie Eskeles, was the daughter of a Jewish banker.

⁶¹ For lists of such men in all areas of government, see Bihl, “Die Juden,” 9407–48. Bihl includes the name of only one diplomat who served under Aehrenthal and Berchtold, the others on his list of “diplomats” being in fact consular officials.

⁶² At least one other diplomat from an originally Jewish family is known to have served during the dualist era. Nikolaus von Gutmannsthal-Benvenuti entered the corps on Haymerle's watch, but retired in 1891 at the rank of attache after only ten years. His departure took place immediately after the death of his father, at which time he inherited the family estates in Carniola.

⁶³ Gothaisches Genealogisches Taschenbuch der Gräflichen Häuser 1914 (Gotha, 1913), 238–39.

⁶⁴ Jäger-Sunstenau, “Die geadelten Judenfamilien,” 1:55.

⁶⁵ Kuno Des Fours's mother was Countess Auguste Coudenhove, while his aunt Maria Des Fours married Count Joseph Czernin and his uncle Arthur Des Fours wed Countess Michaela Bukuwky.

⁶⁶ Planer, Franz, Das Jahrbuch der Wiener Gesellschaft. Biographische Beiträge zur Wiener Zeitgeschichte (Vienna, 1929), 16Google Scholar; Schorske, Carl E., Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture (New York, 1981), 304–5Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ McCagg, Jewish Nobles, 56–57; Wininger, S., Groβie fudische National-Biographie, 7 vols. (Czernowitz, 1925–1936), 1:373Google Scholar. The son of Michel Lazar (Freistädtler) Biedermann, Gustav Biedermann de Üszög et Mosgó, became the grandfather of Count Felix Brusselle-Schaubeck and the great-grandfather of Baron Felix Gerliczy. Brusselle's mother and Gerliczy's grandmother, who married the Hungarian minister president, Baron Géza Fejérváry, were daughters of Gustav.

⁶⁸ For the histories and kinship connections of many of these families, see Hanns JägerSunstenau, “Die geadelten Judenfamilien.” For the Kaans and Wodianers, see also Putz, Franz, “Die österreichische Wirtschaftsaristokratie von 1815–1859” (Ph.D. diss., University of Vienna, 1975), 402ndash;3, 478ür personengeschichtliche Forschung, Bensheim, Germany, for making available to me material about the WittgensteinsGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁹ See the recent biography by Spiel, Hilde, Fanny von Arnstein: A Daughter of the Enlightenment, 1758–1818, trans. Shuttleworth, Christine (New York, 1991)Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Wodianer belonged to a less distinguished branch of the family that had produced the mother of Count Albert Nemes. See McCagg, Jewish Nobles, 55.

⁷¹ For the Hevesys (formerly Bischitz), see Barcsay-Amant, Zoltán v., “Ungarische adelige Familien, die in der Zeit ihrer Adelung oder knapp vorher der israel. Religion angehörten,” in Adeliges Jahrbuch 1936/43 (Lucerne, 1969), 258–59Google Scholar.

⁷² Baron Adolf Seidler (father) to the foreign office, Jan. 2, 1899; foreign office to Seidler, Jan. 17, 1899, Archiv der Republik (Vienna) (AdR), Neue Administrative Registratur (NAR), Fach 4, carton 165. The letter from the foreign office explained that “dermalen ein Bedarf an Candidaten fur die auswärtige Carrière nicht vorhanden ist.”

⁷³ Wininger, Groβe Jüdische National-Biographie, 6:225.

⁷⁴ See Weil's application for admission to the foreign office dated Apr. 29, 1886, in which he records his religion as “mos[aisch]” (HHStA, AR, F4, carton 373, personnel file Otto von Weil). I have not been able to determine a precise date for the family's conversion.

⁷⁵ Isaac Landman, The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, 10 vols. (New York, n.d.), 3: 584–85; Wininger, Groβe Jüdische National-Biographie, 2:62–63.

⁷⁶ See Bihl, “Die Juden,” 940–48.

⁷⁷ On this point, see Godsey, “Aristocratic Redoubt,” 175ff.

⁷⁸ Semi-Gotha (1913), 820. The editor attacked the foreign office for harboring “unheimlich viele, durch die Taufe cachierte, Hebräer und Judensprossen.”

⁷⁹ Zirkular, Oct. 25, 1913, HHStA, AR, F4, carton 452, unnamed folder, fol. 74.

⁸⁰ Wernicke, Anneliese, Theodor Anton Ippen. Ein österreichischer Diplomat und Albanienforscher, Albanische Forschungen, ed. Stadtmüller, Georg, vol. 7 (Wiesbaden, 1967), 11Google Scholar.

⁸¹ Berchtold memoirs (unpublished), vol. 7, 420, HHStA, Nachlaß Berchtold, carton 2; Hantsch, Hugo, Leopold Graf Berchtold. Grandseigneur und Staatsmann, 2 vols. (Graz, 1963), 2:525Google Scholar.

⁸² Kanzleiverordnung, Dec. 2, 1913, HHStA, AR, F4, carton 452, unfitted folder, fol. 58.

⁸³ Rappaport, the son of a banker, was born in Vienna in 1868 and was baptized according to the Roman Catholic rite on September 18, 1883. Eugen Rappaport (Alfred's father) to the foreign office, ca. 1886, HHStA, Konsular Akademie, carton 11, folder 1886, no. 90.

⁸⁴ Foreign office to Prince Konrad Hohenlohe, draft letter, Jan. 29, 1916, HHStA, AR, F4, carton 280, personnel file Alfred Rappaport: “Ende 1909 sah sich Graf Aehrenthal veranlasst den genannten Funktionär, welcher einer der besten Kenner des Orients, insbesondere Albaniens, ist, als Subreferenten für die albanischen Angelegenheiten in die Zentralleitung des Ministeriums des Äuβern einzuberufen, woselbst er so vortreffliche Dienste leistete, dass ihm sowohl im politischen Referate für die orientalischen Angelegenheiten als auch im kirchenpolitischen Referate die Stellung des Stellvertreters des Referentes anvertraut werden konnte.”

⁸⁵ Kanzleiverordnung, Apr. 14, 1914, HHStA, AR, F4, carton 452, untitled folder, fol. 45.

⁸⁶ Vortrag Goluchowski to Francis Joseph, Sept. 14, 1905, AdR, NAR, F4, carton 116, personnel file Richard Oppenheimer, in which the foreign minister praises Oppenheimer's expertise in international finance.

⁸⁷ Jäger-Sunstenau, “Die geadelten Judenfamilien,” 2:128.

⁸⁸ See the discussion of this issue in Godsey, “Aristocratic Redoubt,” esp. chap. 1.

⁸⁹ For a fine treatment of this question in Germany, see Mosse, The German-Jewish Economic Élite, 161–85.