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⁴ For example, Thomas, Richards, The Commodity Culture of Victorian England: Advertising and Spectacle, 1851–1914 (Stanford, Calif., 1990).Google Scholar

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¹⁰ On Széchenyi's treatise On Credit and his role as a reformer,Google Scholarsee George, Barany, Stephen Széchenyi and the Awakening of Hungarian Nationalism, 1791–1841 (Princeton, N.J., 1968).Google Scholar

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¹² Spira, , “The Bourgeois Revolution,” 73.Google ScholarSee also Josef, Polisensky, Aristocrats and the Crowd in the Revolutionary Year 1848: A Contribution to the History of Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Austria (Albany, N.Y., 1980), 124.Google Scholar One week later there was a major panic in Baden spread by rumors; see Carevali, Ralph C., “The ‘False French Alarm’: Revolutionary Panic in Baden, 1848,” Central European History 18 (1985): 119–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹³ Kossuth, in the Lower House (Mar. 19, 1848), Kossuth Lajos összes munkái (Lajos Kossuth's collected works), 11:675,Google Scholar cited in István, Deák, The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848–1849 (New York, 1979), 85.Google Scholar On the recruiting rally in Kecskemét, seeLajos, Kossuth to Dénés Pázmándy, Oct. 1,1848, in Lajos Kossuth, Írások és beszédek 1848–1849-böl, 176.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ Wiener, Martin J., English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980 (Cambridge, 1981).Google Scholar The counterview has the Crystal Palace as “ a monument to consumption, the first of its kind, a place where the combined mythologies of consumerism appeared in concentrated form”; Richards, , Commodity Culture, 3.Google Scholar On the problem of Hungarian backwardness, see Andrew, János, The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, 1825–1945 (Princeton, N.J., 1982).Google Scholar

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²² Pester Lloyd, Jan. 21, 1862; Feb. 23, 1862. The Hungarian Agrarian Society held an exhibit of the objects to be sent to the London Exhibition, Mar. 9, 1862. See also Pester Lloyd, Mar. 16, 1862; June 26, 1862; July 2, 1862; July 10, 1862; July 13, 1862; May 1–3, 1862; July 16–18, 1862.Google Scholar

²³ Ferenc, Toldy to Mihály, Horváth, June 4, 1865, in Horváth Mihály, 1809–1878, ed. Sándor, Márki (Budapest, 1917), 295.Google Scholar

²⁴ Formal invitation presented by Count, Csiráky,in Pester Lloyd, June 6,1865Google Scholar

²⁵ Pester Lloyd, June, 4 1865. On the hundred-man committee, see Pester, Lloyd, June, 3 1865.Google Scholar

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³¹ Jutta, Pemsel, Die Wiener Weltausstellung von 1873 (Vienna, 1989).Google Scholar

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³⁴ See Tamás, Hofer, “Peasant Culture and Urban Culture in the Period of Modernization: Delineation of a Problem Area Based on Data from Hungary,” in The Peasant and the City in Eastern Europe: Interpenetrating Structures, ed. Irene Portis, Winner and Winner, Thomas G. (Cambridge, Mass., 1984).Google Scholar

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³⁶ Pemsel, , Die Wiener Weltausstellung, 77.Google Scholar On the presentation of Viennese liberalism in the architecture of the Ringstraße and on the vulnerability of Viennese liberalism after 1873, see Schorske, Carl E., Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture (New York, 1981).Google Scholar

³⁷ Pemsel, , Die Wiener Weltausstellung, 17, 47.Google Scholar

³⁸ Ibid., 77.

³⁹ Neue Politische Journal, July 19, 1876.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Neue Politische Journal, Aug. 20 and 26, 1876.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Neue Politische Journal, Aug. 20, 1876.Google ScholarSee John, Komlos, The Habsburg Monarchy as a Customs Union: Economic Development in Austria-Hungary in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, N.J., 1983).Google Scholar

⁴² Neue Politische Journal, May 19, 1879.Google Scholar

⁴³ Neue Politische Journal, Aug. 21, 1876; Magyar napló, Aug. 22, 1876;Google ScholarHon, Aug. 22, 1876.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Neue Politische Journal, May 16, 1879.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Neue Politische Journal, May 18, 1879.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ See Good, Economic Rise, 86–95.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Eddie, Scott M., “The Changing Pattern of Land Ownership in Hungary, 1867–1914,” Economic History Review 20 (1967): 304, 309;Google ScholarIdem., “Agriculture as a Source of Supply: Conjectures from the History of Hungary, 1870–1913,” in Economic Development in the Habsburg Monarchy in the Nineteenth Century, ed. John, Komlos (Boulder, Colo., 1983), 101–4.Google ScholarSee also Hans, Rosenberg, Grosse Depression und Bismarckzeit (Berlin, 1967).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Neue Politische Journal, May 20, 1879.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Neue Politische Journal, May 25, 1879.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Neue Politische Journal, May 18, 1879.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Mór, Geltéri, Budapest a kiállitás alatt fővárosi kalauz is tájékoztató mindenki számára (Atlas to Budapest for everyone during the time of the exhibition) (Budapest, 1885), 96;Google ScholarFerenc, Heltai,“A budapesti országos általános kiállitás, in Az “Athanaeum” nagy képes naptára az 1885-dik évre (The Athanaeum's large picture calendar of 1885), ed. Concha, Károly (Budapest, 1885), 60.Google Scholar

⁵² Neues Politisches Volksblatt, Sept. 27–30, 1883.Google Scholar

⁵³ Mór, Gelléri, Matlekovits Sándor, élete és működése (Sándor Matlekovits, his life and work) (Budapest, 1908);Google ScholarFerenc, Heltai, “Dr. Matlekovits Sándor,” in “Athanaeum ” naptára, ed. Károly, ,63–66.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Heltai, , “Dr. Matlekovits Sándor,” 63.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Judit, Kubinsky, Politikai antiszemitizmus magyarországon (1875–1890) (Political anti-Semitism in Hungary [1875–1890]) (Budapest, 1976);Google ScholarAndrew, Handler, Blood Libel at Tiszaeszlar (New York., 1980);Google ScholarMcCagg, William O., Jewish Notables and Geniuses in Modern Hungary (New York, 1972).Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Avoiding deficits “is the fundamental thing,” instructed Crown Prince, Rudolf; Budapesti hirlap, Feb. 6, 1885.Google Scholar Deficits were the problem at the Vienna electric exhibition, also. Final cost overruns were not substantial for either the capital's exhibit or the National Exhibition; Károly, Gerlóczy, Zárjelentése (Closing statement)(Budapest, 1896), 25.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Neues Politisches Volksblatt, Feb. 15, 1885.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Magyar korona, May 3, 1885.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Good, Economic Rise, 139.

⁶⁰ Der Bauunternehmer Ausstellung Zeitung, Feb. 15, 1885.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Neues Politisches Volksblatt, Feb. 23, 1885.Google Scholar

⁶² Der Bauunternehmer Ausstellung Zeitung, Apr. 12, 1885.Google Scholar

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⁶⁴ “A kiforditott föváros” (The capital turned inside out), Pesti napló, Aug. 20, 1885.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Gelléri, , Budapest a kiállitás alatt fővárosi kalauz, 49.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Edmund, Steinacker, Budapest, together with an appendix on the National Hungarian Exhibition of 1885 at Budapest with a Ground Plan of the Exhibition (London, 1885);Google ScholarMagyar korona, Feb. 16, 1885.Google ScholarA tour guide published in Hungarian and German with a lengthy hotel listing was Hugó, Ilosvai, Magyarország és az ezredéves ünnepély (Hungary and the thousand-year celebration) (Budapest,1896).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Magyar korona, May 2,1885.Google ScholarSee also Catherine, Albrecht, “Pride in Production: The Jubilee Exhibition of 1891 and Economic Competition between Czechs and Germans in Bohemia,” Austrian History Yearbook 24 (1993): 105.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Neue Freie Presse, May 2, 1885.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Neues Politisches Volksblatt, Feb. 23, 1885.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Ország-Világ, Sept. 19, 1885.Google Scholar

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⁷² Alajos, Bucsánsky, Nagy képes naptára az 1896 évre (Large picture calendar for 1896) (Budapest, 1896), 2.Google ScholarSee also András, Gerő, Heroeś Square, Budapest: Hungarýs History in Stone and Bronze (Budapest, 1990).Google Scholar

⁷³ “The founding of a nation is celebrated best if the country has been able to advance its culture, economy, and constitutional situation.” To this end the government allocated over fl. 3,000,000 for construction of the industrial arts museum and planned an industrial arts school in Budapest and four hundred new primary schools; Országos Levéltár (OL) (National Archives), K26, ME (Ministerelnőkség), Milleneumi ünnepségekkel kapcsolatos ügyek (Millennium related issues), packet 332, no. 524,1895, Decree of Ministry of Religion and Public Education and March 17, 1896, legislative proposal by Prime Minister Dezső Bánffy. The Vajdahunyád Castle would also become the National Museum of Agriculture.

⁷⁴ Smith, F.Hopkinson, “The Hungarian Millennium,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine 95(New York and London (06–11 1897): 402.Google ScholarSee also Richard Harding, Davis, “The Millennial Celebration at Budapest,” in A Year from a Reporter's Note-book (New York, 1903), 66–99.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Smith, , “Hungarian Millennium,” 399–400.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Zoltán, Bálint, Die Architektur der Millenniums-Ausstellung (Vienna, 1896), 12.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ George, Eisen, “The ‘Budapest Option’: The Hungarian Alternative to the First Modern Olympic Games,” International Journal of the History of Sport 8, no.1 (1991): 124–32;Google ScholarDavid, Young, The Modern Olympics: A Struggle for Revival (Baltimore, Md., 1996);Google ScholarPierre de, Coubertin, Une Campagne de 21 ans (Paris, 1908), 111.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Bálint, , Architektur, 12.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Findling, John E., Chicago's Great World's Fairs (Manchester, England, 1994);Google ScholarRobert, Muccigrosso, Celebrating the New World: Chicago's Columbian Exposition of 1893(Chicago, 1993);Google ScholarBurg, David F., Chicago's White City of 1893 (Lexington, Ky., 1976).Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Bálint, , Architektur, 13, 25.Google Scholar

⁸¹ For a description of the architectural conception and building process, seeIgnác, Alpár, Az1000-éeves országos kiállítás (The thousand-year National Exhibition) (Budapest, 1896).Google Scholar

⁸² Nye, David E., “Electrifying Expositions, 1880–1939,” in Fair Representations: World's Fairs and the Modern World, ed. Robert, Rydell and Gwinn, Nancy E. (Amsterdam, 1994), 140–56.Google Scholar

⁸³ Neue Freie Presse, May 2, 1896.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Neue Freie Presse, May 2, 1896; Pester Lloyd, May 2, 1896.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ “A Penultimate Exhibition,” Saturday Review (London), 05 16, 1896, 470.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Smith, , “Hungarian Millennium,” 410, 401.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Ibid., 410.

⁸⁸ Greenhalgh, , Ephemeral Vistas, 20.Google Scholar The Hungarians did participate in Paris 1900. Zsolnay ceramics won Hungarians some acclaim in modern arts and crafts, but their most striking contribution was a replica of the Vajdahunyád Castle on the Avenue des Puissances Éitrangères; Györgyi, Kálmán, “Az iparművészet a párizsi kiállitáson” (Hungarian industrial arts at the Paris exhibition), Magyar iparművéeset, 09. 1900, 209–45.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ “A Penultimate Exhibition,” Saturday Review (London), 05 16, 1896, 497.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Vasárnapi újság, Jan. 19,1896, 45; OL, K26, ME, packet 332, (March 17,1896). Prime Minister Dezső Bánffy recommended Ft. (forints) 803,000 for the building of a millennium monument and Ft. 300,000 for an equestrian statue.Google Scholar

⁹¹ Neues Politisches Volksblatt, May 7, 1896.Google Scholar

⁹² “Der freche Spatz und der geduldige Elephant,” Neue Politische Volksblatt, May 9, 1896. For parliamentary debate on the flag-burning, see Neues Politisches Volksblatt, May 7, 1896.Google Scholar

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⁹⁴ Stenographische Protokolle über die Sitzungen des Houses der Abgeordneten des österreichischen Reichsrathes im Jahre 1896, Eleventh Session, vol. 20 (Vienna, 1896), 490–510. Hungarian Jews, in turn, connected themselves with the thousand-year tradition. Rabbi Sámuel Kohn argued that“of all religions in our nation, ours is the oldest…. Our religion had existed in this land before it became the country of the Magyars, and also accompanied them [the Magyars] when they arrived here and conquered the land with their blood. We, to whose joy this nation has acknowledged the legality of our religion, not only feel but know that we are Magyars. For us the word Israelite…is the adjective of the word Magyar….it signifies a Jewish Magyar”;Google Scholar“Elnöki megnyitó” (Presidential opening address), in Évkönyv (Yearbook), ed. Vilmos, Bacher and József, Bánóczi (Budapest, 1897),7–8.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Miklós, Szabó, Politikai kultúra Magyarországon 1896–1986 (Budapest, 1989).Google Scholar