Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T03:09:52.990Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Jews of Galicia under Austrian-Polish Rule, 1869–1918

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2009

Piotr Wróbel
Piotr Wróbel
Affiliation:
research fellow at the Institute for Governmental Affairs, University of California/Davis, Davis, CA 95616
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Gaucia occupied an important place in the history of the Jewish Diaspora. Galician Jews made up a majority of Habsburg subjects of Mosaic faith and formed a cultural bridge between Westjuden and Ostjuden. Numerous outstanding Jewish political figures and scholars, such as Isaac Deutscher, Karl Radek, and Martin Buber, were born or raised in Galicia, where Zionist and Jewish socialist movements flourished at that time. The unique atmosphere of a Galician shtetl was recorded in Hassidic tales, in the books of Emil Franzos, Manes Sperber, Bruno Schulz, Andrzej Kuśniewicz, and others. Scholarly works on Jewish Galicia are, however, mostly outdated and relatively short. Consequently, scholars who use information on Galicia only as supplementary data often make numerous errors, and even for an educated American or West European Galicia remains a land of mystery. Marsha Rozenblit is absolutely right when she concludes a review essay, “The Jews of the Dual Monarchy,” with the following observation: “Indeed, it would be nice to know more about the traditional Jewish population of Moravia, Galicia and Hungary.” The present article is a contribution to filling that gap with regard to Galicia.

Type
Articles
Information
Austrian History Yearbook , Volume 25 , January 1994 , pp. 97 - 138
Copyright
Copyright © Center for Austrian Studies, University of Minnesota 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Lerski, George J. and Lerski, Halina T., in Jewish-Polish Coexistence, 1772–1939: A Topical Bibliography (New York, 1986)Google Scholar, list about 100 titles on Galicia out of a total of 2,778. Most of these works were published before World War I. Encyclopaedia Judaica, 16 vols. (Jerusalem, 1971)Google Scholar, gives only 4 titles on Galicia issued after World War II. Although scholarly interest in the Jews of the Habsburg Empire has increased recently and numerous books and articles on this subject have been published, most of them are devoted to partly assimilated German-speaking Jews.

2 Graphic examples are the two most recent biographies of Karl Radek, who was born and raised in Galicia: Lerner, Warren, Karl Radek: The Last Internationalist (Stanford, Calif., 1970)Google Scholar; and Tuck, Jim, Engine of Mischief: An Analytical Biography of Karl Radek (New York, 1988)Google Scholar. Both authors claim that the Sobelsohn family admired German culture and taught Radek “to regard Polish culture as alien and unworthy of study” (Lerner, 3). Both Lerner and Tuck fail to explain why the boy was called “Lolek” and his mother—according to Tuck's spelling (3)—“Panna Zashia.” Both books are full of mistakes on Galician history and geography.

3 Rozenblit, Marsha, “The Jews of the Dual Monarchy,” Austrian History Yearbook 13 (1992): 160–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 In 1890, only 9 percent of the Galician population worked in industry, while 77.3 percent remained in agriculture. Life expectancy was 28 years, and the illiteracy rate (among people older than 6 years) was 67 percent (in 1870 it had been 77 percent). Galicia embraced 26.9 percent of the entire population of Austria and 26.1 percent of its territory (in 1880), but only 9.2 percent of all industrial enterprises and 4 percent of the whole of Austrian industrial production. In 1875, the Galician share of state revenue amounted to 10.7 percent; its share of state expenses, 16.3 percent. The data are from Historia Polski, ed. Nauk, Polska Akademia, Historii, Instytut, 4 vols. (Warsaw, 1970), 3:311, 314, 318, 319, 337Google Scholar.

5 Davies, Norman, God's Playground: A History of Poland, 2 vols. (New York, 1984), 2:139Google Scholar; and Wandycz, Piotr S., “The Poles in the Habsburg Monarchy,” Austrian History Yearbook 3, pt. 2 (1967): 263CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Davies, God's Playground, 142; and Wandycz, “The Poles,” 265–66.

7 Grzybowski, Konstanty, Galicja 1848–1914. Historia ustroju politycznego na tle historii ustroju Austrii (Galicia, 1848–1914Google Scholar: A history of its political system in the context of the Austrian Empire's political system) (Cracow, 1959), 33–34; and Wandycz, “The Poles,” 273–78.

8 Wereszycki, Henryk, Historia polityczna Polski 1864–1914 (Paris, 1979), 37, 154Google Scholar; Historia Polski, 296–302; Wandycz, “The Poles,” 278; and Buszko, Józef, Zum Wandel der Gesellschaftsstruktur in Galizien und Bukowina (Vienna, 1978), 6–7Google Scholar.

9 McCagg, William O. Jr, A History of Habsburg Jews, 1670–1918 (Bloomington, Ind., 1989), 26–28Google Scholar.

10 Ibid., 11–12; and McCagg, William O., Jewish Nobles and Geniuses in Modern Hungary (Boulder, Colo., 1972), 53Google Scholar.

11 Beales, Derek, Joseph II, 2 vols. (New York, 1987), 2:465–79Google Scholar.

12 Balaban, Majer, Dzieje Żydów w Galicji i Rzeczpospolitej Krakowskiej 1772–1868 (A history of the Jews in Galicia and in the Republic of Cracow) (Lvov, 1914), 22–25Google Scholar; Bałaban, Majer, Historia i kultura żydowska, 3 vols. (Warsaw, 1925), 3:409–10Google Scholar; The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols. (New York, 1907), 4:325Google Scholar; Grodziski, Stanisław, W Królestwie Galicji i Lodomerii (In the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria) (Cracow, 1976), 112Google Scholar; and Schiper, Ignacy, Dzieje handlu żydowskiego na ziemiach polskich (A history of Jewish trade in the lands of Poland) (Warsaw, 1937), 333Google Scholar.

13 Eisenbach, Artur, The Emancipation of the jews in Poland, 1780–1870 (Oxford, 1991), 55Google Scholar; and McCagg, A History of Habsburg Jews, 29.

14 Mahler, Raphael, A History of Modern Jewry, 1780–1815 (London, 1971), 330–32Google Scholar; and Bałaban, Majer, Historia Żydów w Krakowie i na Kazimierzu, 1304–1868 (A history of the Jews in Cracow and Kazimierz), 2 vols. (Cracow, 1936), 2:565–69Google Scholar .

15 Since Polish was an official language of Galician administration, all the geographical names in the article are in Polish, as cited in official documents of the period discussed. Three exceptions are Warsaw, Cracow, and Lvov, which are familiar in their English renderings. Ukrainian names in parentheses are added when a city or a town located in Eastern Galicia is mentioned for the first time. A table containing major Galician place names in four languages appears in Markovits, Andrei S. and Sysyn, Frank E., eds., Nationbuilding and the Politics of Nationalism: Essays on Austrian Galicia (Cambridge, Mass., 1982), 323–24Google Scholar.

16 Schiper, Dzieje handlu, 334; and Bałaban, Dzieje Żydów, 73–83.

17 Dubnow, Simon, History of the Jews, 5 vols. (New York, 1973), 5:115–21Google Scholar; and Schiper, Dzieje handlu, 334–41. Luftmenschen is a Yiddish word meaning “people living on air.”

18 Grzybowski, Galicja, 33; Bałaban, Dzieje Żydów, 143–75; Eisenbach, Emancipation of the Jews, 330–31, 343–46; and Dubnow, History of the jews, 124, 286.

19 Bałaban, Dzieje Żydów, 175–79; and Eisenbach, Emancipation of the Jews, 380–83.

20 Eisenbach, Emancipation of the Jews, 404–6; Bałaban, Dzieje Żydów, 192; Dubnow, History of the Jews, 302; and Encyclopaedia Judaica, 10 vols. (Berlin, 1931), 7:64Google Scholar.

21 Schiper, Ignacy, Tartakower, Arieh, and Haftka, Aleksander, eds., Żydzi w Polsce Odrodzonej (The Jews in the reborn Poland), 2 vols. (Warsaw, 1932–1933), 1:392Google Scholar.

22 Ibid.; and Encyclopaedia Judaica (Jerusalem, 1971), 16:1330Google Scholar.

23 Wandruszka, Adam and Urbanitsch, Peter, eds., Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848–1918 (Vienna, 1980)Google Scholar: vol.3, Die Völker des Reiches, pt. 2, 894–99; Schiper, Naftali, Dzieje Żydów w Polsce (A history of the Jews in Poland), 2 vols. (Lvov, 1927), 2:98Google Scholar; and Stillschweig, Kurt, “Nationalism and Autonomy among Eastern European Jewry: Origin and Historical Development up to 1939,” Historia judaica 6 (1944): 35–36Google Scholar.

24 Wandruszka and Urbanitsch, Die Habsburgermonarchie 3, pt. 2:881–903; Schiper, Dzieje handlu, 337; Wasiutyński, Bohdan, Ludność żydowska w Polsce w wiekach XIX i XX (The Jewish population in Poland in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries) (Warsaw, 1930), 90Google Scholar; Buszko, Zum Wandel, 29; and Półćwiartek, Józef, “Skupiska żydowskie w Galicji u schyłku XVIII wieku” (Jewish communities in Galicia by the end of the eighteenth century), in Żydzi w Małopolsce. Studia z dziejów osadnictwa i życia społcznego (The Jews in Malopolska: Studies in the history of settlement and social life), ed. Kiryk, Feliks (Przemyśl, 1991), 150Google Scholar.

25 Eisenbach, Emancipation of the Jews, 203; and Schiper, Dzieje handlu, 436.

26 Pulzer, P. G. J., “The Austrian Liberals and the Jewish Question, 1867–1914,” Journal of Central European Affairs 23 (1963–1964): 133Google Scholar.

27 Wandruszka and Urbanitsch, Die Habsburgermonarchie 3, pt. 2:885.

28 Wasiutyński, Ludność żydowska, 91.

29 Wakar, Włodzimierz, Rozwój narodowości polskiej (The growth of the Polish nationality), 3 vols. (Kielce, 1918), 1:96–97Google Scholar; and Wasiutyński, Ludność żydowska, 92.

30 Wakar, Rozwój, 102; Wasiutyński, Ludność żydowska, 92.

31 Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 377–78; and Rabinbach, A. G., “The Migration of Galician Jews to Vienna, 1857–1880,” Austrian History Yearbook 11 (1975): 43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 Tartakower, Arieh, “Jewish Migratory Movements in Austria in Recent Generations,” in The Jews of Austria, ed. Fraenkel, J. (London, 1970), 287Google Scholar; Mahler, Raphael, “The Economic Background of Jewish Emigration from Galicia to the United States,” in East European Jews in Two Worlds: Studies from YIVO Annual, ed. Moore, Deborah Dash (Evanston, III., 1990), 288Google Scholar; and Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 378.

33 Tartakower, “Jewish Migratory Movements,” 288; and Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 378.

34 Miller, Saul, Dobromil: Life in a Galician Shtetl, 1890–1907 (New York, 1980), 1–2Google Scholar.

35 Rabinbach, “The Migration of Galician Jews,” 44; Rozenblit, Marsha, “A Note on Galician Jewish Migration to Vienna,” Austrian History Yearbook 19–20, pt. 1 (1983/1984): 143Google Scholar; Wandruszka and Urbanitsch, Die Habsburgermonarchie 3, pt. 2: 888–89;Rozenblit, Marsha, The Jews of Vienna, 1867–1914: Assimilation and Identity (Albany, N.Y., 1983), 17, 27Google Scholar; Wistrich, Robert S., The Jews of Vienna in the Age of Franz Joseph (London, 1989), 64–67Google Scholar; and Katz, Jacob, “The Identity of PostEmancipatory Hungarian Jewry,” in A Social and Economic History of Central European Jewry, ed. Don, Yehuda and Karady, Victor (New Brunswick, N.J., and London, 1990), 16Google Scholar .

36 Mendelsohn, Ezra, “Jewish Assimilation in Lvov: The Case of Wilhelm Feldman,” Slavic Review 28 (1969): 578CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mendelsohn, Ezra, “From Assimilation to Zionism in Lvov: The Case of Alfred Nossig,” The Slavonic and East European Review 44 (1966): 521Google Scholar; Mahler, Raphael, “The Austrian Government and the Hassidim during the Period of Reaction (1814–1848),” Jewish Social Studies 1 (1939): 196–97Google Scholar; Franzos, Karl Emil, “Mein Erstlingswerk: Die Juden von Barnow,” in Die Geschichte des Erstlingswerks, ed. Franzos, Karl Emil (Leipzig, 1894), 220Google Scholar; Don, Yehuda and Magos, George, “The Demographic Development of Hungarian Jewry,” Jewish Social Studies 45, no 3–4< (Fall 1983): 208Google Scholar; and Holzer, Jerzy, “Zur Frage der Akkulturation der Juden in Galizien in 19. und 20. Jahrhundert,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 37 (1989): 218, 223Google Scholar.

37 Mendelsohn, “Jewish Assimilation,” 579; Feldman, Wilhelm, Stronnictwa i programy polityczne w Galicji 1846–1906 (Parties and political programs in Galicia, 1846–1906), 2 vols. (Cracow, 1907), 2: 274–75Google Scholar; Holzer, “Zur Frage der Akkulturation,” 217, 224; Archives of the Jewish Historical Institute in Poland, Warsaw, Protocols of Cracow's Jewish Community (Protokoły z posiedzen zboru izraelickiego w Krakowie), no. 552, entry of 02 6, 1870Google Scholar; and Bloch, Joseph S., My Reminiscences (New York, 1973), 78Google Scholar.

38 Mendelsohn, “Jewish Assimilation,” 580; Feldman, Stronnictwa, 269; Holzer, “Zur Frage der Akkulturation,” 219–20; and Bałaban, Historia Żydów w Krakowie, 681–82.

39 Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 394; Almog, Samuel, “Alfred Nossig: A Reappraisal,” Studies in Zionism 7 (Spring 1983): 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mendelsohn, “Jewish Assimilation,” 581; Mendelsohn, “From Assimilation,” 521–23; Holzer, ”Zur Frage der Akkulturation,” 224–25; and Wacław Wierzbianiec, “Życie kulturalno-oświatowe Żydów przemyskich w okresie autonomii Galicji” (Cultural and educational activities of the Jews of Przemyśl during the period of Galician autonomy), in Żydzi w Małopolsce, ed. Kiryk, 210.

40 Eisenbach, Emancipation of the Jews, 245–46; and Sperber, Manes, God's Water Carriers (New York and London, 1987), 62Google Scholar.

41 Bujak, Franciszek, Limanowa (Cracow, 1902), 184Google Scholar.

42 Wandruszka and Urbanitsch, Die Habsburgermonarchie 3, pt. 2: 908–9; Holzer, “Zur Frage der Akkulturation,” 223–24; and Bronsztejn, Szyja, Ludność Żydowska w Polsce w okresie miedzywojennym. Studium statystyczne (The Jewish population of Poland during the interwar period: A statistical study) (Wrocław, 1963), 48, 53Google Scholar.

43 Saryusz-Zaleski, Wojciech, Dzieje przemystu w b. Galicji 1804–1914 (A history of industry in the former Galicia) (Cracow, 1930), 126Google Scholar.

44 Ibid., 127–29.

45 Bujak, Franciszek, Rozwój gospodarczy Galicji, 1772–1914 (Economic Development of Galicia, 1772–1914) (Lvov, 1917), 34–39Google Scholar.

46 Bujak, Rozwój gospodarczy, 39–47; Saryusz-Zaleski, Dzieje przemysłu, 130–36; Schiper, Dzieje handlu, 442–49; and Bronsztejn, Ludność Żydowska, 54, 74.

47 Schoenfeld, Joachim, Shtetl Memoirs: Jewish life in Galicia under the Austro-Hungarian Empire and in the Reborn Poland, 1898–1939 (Hoboken, N.J., 1985), 6Google Scholar; and Schiper, Dzieje handlu, 449.

48 Schiper, Dzieje handlu, 449–50.

49 Ibid., 450–55.

50 Chłedowski, Kazimierz, Pamietniki (Memoirs), 2 vols. (Wrocław, 1951), 2:229, 233Google Scholar; Safrin, Horacy, Ucieszne i osobliwe historie mojego życia (Funny and peculiar stories from my life) (Łódź, 1970), 27Google Scholar; Lam, Jan, Wybór kronik (Chronicles) (Warsaw, 1954), 38, 57Google Scholar; and Bujak, Franciszek, Galicja, 2 vols. (Lvov, 1908), 1:182Google Scholar.

51 Bujak, Limanowa, 184, 200; Schoenfeld, Stetl Memoirs, 16–27; Franzos, Karl E., The Jews of Barnow (New York, 1883), 30Google Scholar; Miller, Dobromil, 8; and Archives of the Jewish Historical Institute in Poland, Warsaw, Protocols, no. 552, entries of 01 12, 1879Google Scholar; Feb. 17 and 24,1870; and others.

52 Bujak, Limanowa, 195–97; and Schoenfeld, Shtetl Memoirs, 19.

53 Bujak, Limanowa, 185; and Schoenfeld, Shtetl Memoirs, 46; and Mark Zborowski and Herzog, Elizabeth, Life Is with People: The Culture of the Shtetl (New York, 1973), 93–97Google Scholar.

54 Gelber, Natan M., Aus zwei Jahrhunderten. Beiträge zur neueren Geschichte der Juden (Vienna and Leipzig, 1924), 105Google Scholar; Bałaban, Majer, Historia Iwowskiej synagogi postepowej (A history of the progressive synagogue of Lvov) (Lvov, 1937), 22–28Google Scholar; and Jüdisches Lexikon, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1928), 2:877Google Scholar.

55 Archives of the Jewish Historical Institite in Poland, Warsaw, Protocols, no. 552, entry of April 3, 1870; and Bałaban, Historical Żydów w Krakowie, 709–19.

56 Archives of the Jewish Historical Institute in Poland, Warsaw, Protocols, no. 552, entry of April 3, 1870; and Bałaban, Historia Żydów w Krakowie, 709–19.

57 Mahler, A History of Modern Jewry, 498–525.

58 Feldman, Stronnictwa, 267–75; Schoenfeld, Stetl Memoirs, 75–80; Heshel, Rabbi J., “The History of Hassidism in Austria,” in The Jews of Austria, ed. Fraenkel, Josef (London, 1970), 348–52Google Scholar ; Mahler, “The Austrian Government,” 198–204; and Bloch, My Reminiscences, 18–20.

59 Gaisbauer, Adolf, Davidstem und Doppeladler. Zionismus und jüdischer Nationalismus in Oesterreich 1882–1918 (Vienna and Cologne, 1988), 19–41Google Scholar; and Wistrich, The Jews of Vienna, 348.

60 Mendelsohn, “From Assimilation,” 521–30; Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 396; Feldman, Stronnictwa, 285; and Gaisbauer, Davidstem, 39–47.

61 Mendelsohn, “From Assimilation,” 521–30; Feldman, Stronnictwa, 286; and Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 396.

62 Feldman, Stronnictwa, 289.

63 Ibid., 287–89; and Schoenfeld, Shtetl Memoirs, 122.

64 Galician Jews had one deputy in the Reichsrat in the years 1867–73, five in 1873–79, four in 1879–91, five in 1891–97, six in 1897–1906, five in 1907–11, and ten after 1911. Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Źydzi w Polsce, 397; and Feldman, Stronnictwa, 287.

65 Leila P. Everett, “The Rise of Jewish National Politics in Galicia, 1905–1907,” in Nation-building and the Politics of Nationalism, ed. Markovits and Sysyn, 160; and Wistrich, Robert S., Socialism and the Jews: The Dilemmas of Assimilation in Germany and Austria-Hungary (London, 1982), 312Google Scholar.

66 Piasecki, Henryk, Sekcja Źydowska Polskiej Partii Socjal-Demokratycznej (The Jewish section of the Polish Social-Democratic party) (Warsaw, 1982)Google Scholar, passim; and Feldman, Stronnktwa, 132–37.

67 Feldman, Stronnitwa, 291–94; and Wistrich, Socialism, 318–21.

68 Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 400–401.

69 Schiper, Dzieje Żydów, 112; and Feldman, Stronnictwa, 309.

70 Waxman, Max, A History of Jewish Literature, 1880–1935, 4 vols. (New York, 1960), 4, pt. 2:633Google Scholar; and Silberschlag, E., From Renaissance to Renaissance: Hebrew Literature from 1492–1970, 2 pts. (New York, 1973), 1:109Google Scholar.

71 Liptzin, Sol, A History of Yiddish Literature (Middle Village, N.Y., 1972), 25–32Google Scholar; and Silberschlag, Renaissance, 126–33.

72 Gelber, M. H., “The jungjüdische Bewegung: An Unexplored Chapter in German-Jewish Literary and Cultural History,” Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 31 (1986): 108–14Google Scholar; and Liptzin, A History of Yiddish Literature, 237–41.

73 Weinreich, Max, A History of Yiddish Language (Chicago, 1973), 292Google Scholar.

74 Golczewski, Frank, Polnisch-jüdische Beziehungen, 1881–1922 (Wiesbaden, 1981), 60Google Scholar; Pulzer, Peter, The Rise of Political Antisemitism in Germany and Austria (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), 122–33Google Scholar ; Golczewski, Frank, “Rural Antisemitism in Galicia before World War I,” in The lews of Poland, ed. Abramsky, Chimen, Jachimczyk, Maciej, and Polonsky, Anthony (Oxford, 1986), 97–102Google Scholar ; and Himka, John Paul, “Ukrainian-Jewish Antagonism in the Galician Countryside during the Late Nineteenth Century,” in Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective, ed. Potichnyj, Peter J. and Aster, Howard (Edmonton, 1988), 111–49Google Scholar.

75 Bujak, Franciszek, Żmiaca. Wie⋅ powiatu limanowskiego (Żmiaca: A village in the district of Limanowa) (Cracow, 1903), 105Google Scholar; Golczewski, Polnisch-jüdische Beziehungen, 64–84; and Golczewski, “Rural Antisemitism”, 104.

76 Sperber, God's Water Carriers, 72; and Schoenfeld, Shtetl Memoirs, 114–17.

77 Dubnow, History of the Jews, 757–60.

78 Żydzi w Polsce, 398; and Schoenfeld, Shtetl Memoirs, 126.

79 Prater, D. A., European of Yesterday: A Biography of Stefan Zweig (Oxford, 1972), 68Google Scholar; McCagg, A History of Habsburg Jews, 219; and Grunwald, M., Vienna (Philadelphia, 1936), 459–61Google Scholar.

80 Schoenfeld, Shtetl Memoirs, 129; and McCagg, A History of Habsburg Jews, 206.

81 Archives of the Jewish Historical Institute in Poland, Warsaw, Memoir of Baruch Milch, copy-book 1; Tartakower, “Jewish Migratory Movement,” 289; and Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 413.

82 Sperber, God's Water Carriers, 74; and Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 413.

83 Tartakower, “Jewish Migratory Movement,” 290; and Rabinach, “The Migration,” 54.

84 Tartakower, “Jewish Migratory Movement,” 291.

85 Sukiennicki, Wiktor, East Central Europe during World War I: From Foreign Domination to National Independence, 2 vols. (New York, 1984), 1:116Google Scholar.

86 Graf, D. M., “Military Rule behind the Russian Front, 1914–1917: The Political Ramification,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 22 (1974): 397Google Scholar; Archives of the Jewish Historical Institute in Poland, Warsaw, Memoir of Baruch Milch; Brusilow, Aleksiei A., A Soldier's Note-Book, 1914–1918 (Westport, Conn., 1971), 71, 109Google Scholar; and Rogger, Hans, Jewish Policies and Right-Wing Politics in Imperial Russia (Berkeley, Calif., 1986), 100CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

87 Schiper, Tartakower, and Haftka, Żydzi w Polsce, 416; and Tartakower, “Jewish Migratory Movement,” 292.

88 Heshel, “The History of Hassidim,” 352–59; Sperber, God's Water Carriers, 146; and McCagg, A History of Habsburg Jews, 203.

89 Witos, Wincenty, Moje wspomnienia (My reminiscences), 2 vols. (Paris, 1964), 2:184Google Scholar.

90 Encyclopaedia judaica 16:1331; Morgenthau, Henry, All in a life-time (Garden City, N.Y., 1923), 410Google Scholar; and Tomaszewski, Jerzy, “Lwów, 22 listopada 1918,” Przeglqd Historyczny 75 (1984): 279–85Google Scholar.

91 Morgenthau, All in a Life-time, 413.

92 Deutscher, Isaac, The Non-Jewish Jew and Other Essays (Boston, 1982), 11Google Scholar.

93 Marcus, Joseph, Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland, 1919–1939 (Berlin, New York, Amsterdam, 1983), 263CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

94 Ibid., 51; and Tapauh, Shimshon, “Agrikultur bay Yidn in Poyln tsvishen bayde velt-milk-homes,” in Studies on Polish Jewry, 1919–1939: The Interplay of Social, Economic and Political Factors in the Struggle of a Minority for Its Existence, ed. Fishman, Joshua A. (New York, 1974), 377–78, 419Google Scholar.

95 Mendelsohn, Ezra, The Jews of East Central Europe between the World Wars (Bloomington, Ind., 1983), 18, 30Google Scholar; and Bronsztejn, Ludność żydowska, 31.

96 Holzer, “Zur Frage der Akkulturation,” 226.

97 See, for example, a poem by Shtoltsenberg, Aba, “Galician Winter,” written while he was living in New York, in The Penguin Book of Modern Yiddish Verse, ed. Wise, Ruth et al. (New York, 1987), 598–600Google Scholar.