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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 February 2009
Until the end of the second World War the statue of Ban Jelačič, his sword pointing towards Budapest, stood on the main square of Agram as a symbol, not only of Croatian national pride, but also as a reminder of the country's proverbial attachment to the Habsburg dynasty. The “man who saved Austria” and the prowess of the Croatian Military Border became the most cherished historical legends of the old Austro-Hungarian empire and have attracted the attention of many historians. It is not my purpose to restate the case for or against Jelačič or to give yet another account of the complicated relationships between Agram, Pest, and Vienna but to disentangle legends which have been all too widely accepted and which have obscured important aspects of the role played by the Military Border in the revolution of 1848. In general, writers have concentrated on the picturesque appearance of the frontier troops and on their ferocity and their allegedly unshakable loyalty to the imperial cause and have neglected the military and political considerations which must be taken into account if one wishes to make a more accurate evaluation of the Croatian intervention in the revolution and its failure and ultimate repercussions.
2 For the development of this institution, see my The Austrian Military Border in Croatia: 1522–1747 (Urbana, III.: University of Illinois Press, 1960).Google Scholar
3 As described by Paton, A. A., Highlands and Islands of the Adriatic, including Dalmalia, Croatia, and the Southern Provinces of the Austrian Empire (2 vols., London: Chapman and Hall, 1849), Vol. II, p. 107.Google Scholar
4 Their regimental history and military engagements are conveniently summarized in Alphons von, Wrede, Geschichte der k. und k. Wehrmacht (5 vols., Vienna: L. W. Seidel & Sohn, 1898-1903), Vol. V, pp. 195–345.Google Scholar
5 Data on the administration and organization as given in the semiofficial handbook by Matthias, Stopper, Erläuterungen üher die Militär-Gr?änz Vcrwallung des öslcrreichischen Kaiserthums (Vienna: Carl Gerold, 1838).Google Scholar
6 In 1848 the total Austrian regular forces numbered 400,000. Rudolf, Kiszling et al. , Die Revolution im Kaiserthum Österreich 1848–1849 (2 vols., Vienna: Universum Verlag, 1948), Vol. I, p. 25.Google Scholar
7 André, Blanc, La Croatie Occidentale (Paris: Institut d'Éitudes Slaves de l'Université de Paris, 1957), pp. 198–233.Google Scholar
8 Ibid., pp. 246–247. Paton, observed, in his Highlands and Islands of the Adriatic, Vol. II, pp. 176–178Google Scholar, that “while the judicial and military administration of the territory is excellent, the social system is totally destructive of harmony … and has developed all the evils of Communism.” He concluded that the administration opposed any change because “it could not be carried out without a supply of money; and whence is the money to came from without altering the relations of the frontier to the fiscal department?” Economic conditions were somewhat better in the Slavonian regiments. See the description in Spiridion Jowitsch, , Ethnographisches Cemählde der slavonischen Militärgrenze (Vienna: Mechitaristen Congregations Buchhandlung, 1835), pp. 72–77.Google Scholar
9 Among other sources, see the report by Pidoll zu Quintenbach, section chief in the Military Border department of the Hofkriegsrat, dated Vienna, August 19, 1820, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Hofkriegsrat, Hauptreihe 1820, B-l-55/68; and his report in 1825 entitled, “Relation des Hofrathes von Pidoll über seine im Jahr 1825 vorgenommene Bereisung der Militär-Granze,” Ibid., Kanzleiarchiv, Vll/369. See also the report entitled “Zur Verbesserung der Moralität and Religiosität der hierständigen Gränzer und zur Emporhebung des Wohlstandes,” dated Agram, November 21, 1832, Ibid., Mémoires, XXIII/74; Imbro, Tkalać, Uspcmene iz Hrvatske [Memoirs of Croatia] (Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska, 1945), pp. 247–249Google Scholar; Paul, Kussan, Kurzgefasste Geschichte des Oguliner dritten National-Crenz Infantrie Regiments (Vienna: Leopold Sommer, 1852), pp. 5–7Google Scholar; and Franz, Bach, Otocaner Regimentsgeschichte (Karlstadt: Johann Nep. Prettner, 1853), pp. 297–299.Google Scholar
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11 The ethnic status of the Grenzer in Croatia is still the subject of heated polemics between Croatian and Serbian scholars. For the Austrian administration, however, religion was the determining factor in deciding nationality status. Catholics were listed as Croats, and members of the Greek Orthodox Church as Serbs. See von Czoernig, Karl Freiherr, Ethnographie der österreichischen Monarchie (3 vols., Vienna: K. K. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei, 1857), Vol. II, pp. 167–172Google Scholar. Census reports and muster lists for the nineteenth century can be found in Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Schriftgut Militärgrenze, 29–10–11; and in the Državni Arhiv (Zagreb), Zagrebačka generalkomanda, F-6.
12 Ognieslav, Utiešenović, Die Militärgrenze und die Verfassung (Vienna: F. Manz & Comp., 1861), pp. 45–58.Google Scholar
13 Directive of December 12, 1842, as printed in Gyula, Miskolcsy (ed.), A horvát kérdé és törenete és irományai a rendi állam korában [History and Documents on the Croatian Question in the Period of the Feudal State] (2 vols., Budapest: Magyar Történelmi Tarsulat, 1927-1928), Vol. II, p. 31.Google Scholar
14 Report of General Count Auersperg, Agram, April 17, 1847, Ibid., p. 542.
15 Paton, , Highlands and Islands of the Adriatic, Vol. II, p. 174.Google Scholar
16 See Kolowrat's memoranda on the Illyrian question, dated May 20, 1840 and February 18, 1845, in Miskolczy, , A horvät kérdés, Vol. I, pp. 592–593Google Scholar; and Vol. II, pp. 291–293.
17 Hofkriegsrat memorandum, November 17, 1843, in ibid., Vol. II, pp. 73–74; and orders to alert Croatian Border regiments, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Hofkriegsrat, Präsidialreihe, 1846–626.
18 Richard, Metternich (ed.), Aus Metternichs nachgelassenen Papieren (8 vols., Vienna: W. Braumüller, 1880-1884), Vol. VIII, p. 213.Google Scholar
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20 See the Croatian manifesto of March 25, 1848, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Hofkriegsrat, Hauptreihe 1848, B-99/25.
21 Report by General Auersperg, Agram, March 30, 1848, Ibid., Kriegsministerium, Präsidialreihe, CK 1848–860.
22 Report by General Auersperg, Agram, April 4, 1848, Ibid., MK 1848–129.
23 The term was used by Josef, Redlich in his Das osterreichische Staats- und Reichsproblem (2 vols., Vienna: Reinhold, 1920-1926), Vol. I, p. 215.Google Scholar
24 The reason for Jelačić's appointment is still subject to various interpretations. I have followed the accounts given in Kiszling, , Revolution im Kaiserthum Österreich, Vol. I, pp. 78–82Google Scholar; and Gyula, Miskolczy, Ungarn in der Habsburger Monarchie (Vienna: Herold, 1959), pp. 85–86.Google Scholar
25 Kulmer to Jelačič, Vienna, March 30, 1848, Arhiv Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti (Zagreb), Ostauština Bana Jelačica (hereafter cited as “Jelačič Papers”), D-I-I.
26 Stiles, William H., Austria in 1848–49 (2 vols., New York: Harper Bros., 1852), Vol. II, pp. 55–56Google Scholar; Anton, Springer, Geschichte Österreichs seit dem Wiener Frieden 1809 (2 vols., Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1863-1865), Vol. II, 272–273.Google Scholar
27 Jelačic's report, Agram, April 27, 1848, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Kriegsministerium, Präsidialreihe, MK 1848–857.
28 Declaration of martial law, Državni Arhiv (Zagreb), Varia militaria, Brigada Petrinia, F-2.
29 Jelačić to Latour, Agram, May 10, 1848, Jelačić Papers, C-V-4. See also Miskolczy, Ungarn in der Habsburger Monarchie, pp. 112–113.
30 Edict as printed in Nordstein, F. A., Geschichte der Wiener Revolution (Leipzig: Lorck, 1850), pp. 131–133.Google Scholar
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33 Kulmer to Jelačić, Vienna, May 17, 1848, as printed in Josip, Matasović, “Kulmerova pisma banu Jelačicu 1848” [Kulmer-Jelačić Correspondence in 1848]. Narodna Starina, Vol. XIII (1935), pp. 153–154.Google Scholar
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36 Report on events in the Peterwardein regiment by Colonel Daniel U. Rastic, Vinkovze, August 3, 1848, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Kriegsministerium, Pr7auml;sidialreihe, MK 1848–4240.
37 Orders concerning the taking over of the Brood and Gradisca regiments, August 7, 1848, Jelačić Papers, C-XVI-1.
38 Springer, , Geschichte Öslerreichs, Vol. II, p. 436Google Scholar; correspondence between Jelačič and Latour concerning the election and the participation of Grcmcr delegates, Agram, April 27, 1848, and Vienna. May 2, 1848, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Kriegsminislerium, Prüsidialreihe, MK 1848–857.
39 Stiles, , Austria in 1848–49, Vol. II, pp. 380–381.Google Scholar
40 See the imperial edict and other papers printed in Nordstein, Geschichte der Wiener Revolution, pp. 166–173. See also Kiszling, , Revolution im Kaiserthum Osterreich, Vol. I, pp. 163–165.Google Scholar
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42 On the unrest among the Crenzer battalions in Italy, see Radetzky to Jelačić, Verona, June 23, 1848, Jelačić Papers, E-VII-3.
43 ProcIamation as printed in Nordstein, Geschkhte der Wiener Revolution, pp. 191–192.
44 Kulmer to Jelačić, Vienna, June 27, 1848, Jelačić Papers, E-VII-3.
45 Redlich, , Das österreichische Staats- und Reichsproblem, Vol. II, p. 215.Google Scholar
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47 Hrabowsky's report on the attack on Karlowitz, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Feldakten 1848, Hrabowsky-VI/57; Springer, , Geschichte Österreichs, Vol. II, p. 452.Google Scholar
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49 Kiszling, , Revolution im Kaiserthum Österreich, Vol. I, p. 165.Google Scholar
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56 Strength report of the Croatian-Slavonian corps, September, 1848, Jelač Papers, F-II-3.
57 Bach, Olocaner Regimentsgeschichte, pp. 227–232.
58 Jelačić to Latour, Agram, August 21, 1848, Jelačić Papers, C-V-2.
59 Situation report, Agram, September 9, 1848, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Feldakten 1848, Jellachich, IX/15.
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64 Kulmer to Jelačić, Vienna, August 14, 1848, Ibid., D-1–7.
65 Springer, , Geschichte Österreichs, Vol. I, pp. 493–495Google Scholar: Kiszling, , Revolution im Kaiscrthum Österreich, Vol. I, pp. 236–238.Google Scholar
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68 Kulmer to Jelačić, Vienna, September 2, 1848, Ibid., D-I-17.
69 Kulmer to Jelačić, Vienna, September 4, 1848, Ibid., D-I-22.
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72 The non-Hungarian units of the regular imperial army in Hungary joined the ban. See the undated report in Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Kriegsministerium, Präsidialreihe, MK 1848–5283. For the attitude of the officers towards the war, see Jelačić to Count Téléky, Warasdin, September 10, 1848, Jelačić Papers, CXXVII-1–2.
73 Proclamation of neutrality by General Jović, commander of the fortress of Esseg, Jelačić Papers, E-VII-9. In early October, General Jović joined the Hungarian national army and turned the fortress over to Honvéd troops. See Springer, , Geschichte Österreichs, Vol. II, pp. 528–529.Google Scholar
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81 Imperial decree of October 4, 1848, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Feldakten 1848, Jellachich, X-7–1/4a.
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83 JeIačić's proclamation entitled “On the March from the Drava to Vienna,” ibid., C-I-l.
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89 Hauptmann, “Banus Jellačić und Feldmarschall Fürst Windisch-Grätz,” pp.382–383.
90 Croatian order of battle, October 27, 1848, Kriegsarchiv (Vienna), Feldakten 1848, Jellachich, 211 and 212. For the excesses of the Grenzer, see Rath, Viennese Revolution, p. 353. However, all other troops, German, Bohemian, and Galician, as well as Croatian, were equally guilty, even though later the Grenzer alone were blamed for the looting which took place in the capital. Springer, , Geschichte Östeneichs, Vol. II, p. 376.Google Scholar
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94 Orders published in Warasdin on December 5, 1848, by Feldzeugmeister Dahlen mobilizing all 5th and newly-established 6th battalions in all regiments, Ibid.
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107 Lieutenant Field Marshal Adolph von Schütte to Master of Ordnance Julius von Haynau, Temesvar, January 13, 1850, Aleks Ivić (ed.), Arhivska gradja osrpskim i hrvatskim knjizevnim i kulturnim radnicima [Contributions relating to the work of Serb and Croat literary figures]. Ser. 2, Vol. III of Zbornik za istoriju, jezik i knjizevnost srpskog naroda [Review of Serbian history, language, and literature] (Belgrade: Srpska Akademija Nauka, 1931), pp. 160–161.
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