Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T01:55:32.310Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Láhi and Attáldat: The Philosophy of the Gift and Sami Education

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 July 2015

Rauna Kuokkanen*
Affiliation:
Institute on Globalization and the Human Condition, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4M4, Canada
Get access

Abstract

This article explores the Sami philosophy of the gift as a basis for a transformative pedagogical framework. Grounded on the Sami land-based worldview, this philosophy calls for the recognition and reciprocation of gifts, whether gifts of the land, interpersonal gifts or giftedness of an individual. In particular, the article considers two Sami concepts, that of láhi and attáldat and explains how they can serve as a framework for a Sami pedagogy that takes into account the central role of the Sami worldview in contemporary education while simultaneously critically analysing the colonial structures that continue to impact Sami society and education.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahlbäck, T., & Bergman, J. (Eds.). (1990). The Saami Shaman drum. Åbo: Åbo Akademi.Google Scholar
Aikio-Puoskari, U., (1998). Sami language in Finnish schools In Kasten, E. (Ed.), Bicultural education in the north: Ways of preserving and enhancing Indigenous peoples’ languages and traditional knowledge (pp. 4758). Münster: Waxmann.Google Scholar
Allen, R.G., (1986). The sacred hoop: Recovering the feminine in American Indian traditions. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Ash Poitras, J. (1991). The essential spirituality of North American Indigenous cultures. Matriart, 2(1), 27.Google Scholar
Ash Poitras, J. (1996). Paradigms for hope and posterity: Wohaw’s sun dance drawing. In Berlo, J. (Ed.), Plains Indians drawings (pp. 6869). New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc. & The American Federation of Arts and the Drawing Centre.Google Scholar
Bäckman, L., & Hultcrantz, Å. (Eds.). (1978). Studies in Lapp shamanism. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.Google Scholar
Balto, A. (Ed.). (1997a). Diehtu ja gelbbolasvuohta Sdmis. Sámi skuvla saddamin. Sámi oahpposuorggi diliin. Kárášjohka: Dawi Girji.Google Scholar
Balto, A. (1997b). Sámi mánáidbajásgeassin nuppástuvvá. Oslo: Ad Notam Gyldendal.Google Scholar
Barnhardt, R. (1991). Higher education in the fourth world: Indigenous people take control. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 18(2), 199232.Google Scholar
Battiste, M. (1996). Enabling the autumn seed:Toward a decolonized approach to Aboriginal knowledge, language and education.Canadian Journal of Native Education, 22(1), 1627.Google Scholar
Battiste, M. (Ed.). (2000). Reclaiming Indigenous voice andvision. Vancouver: University ofBritish Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Battiste, M. (2001). Decolonising the university: Ethical guidelines for research involving Indigenous populations. In Findlay, L.M. & Bidwell, R.M. (Eds.), Pursuing academic freedom:“Free and fearless”? (pp. 190203). Saskatoon: Purich.Google Scholar
Battiste, M. (2002). An interview with Linda Tuhiwai Te Rina Smith. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 26(2), 169186.Google Scholar
Battiste, M., Bell, L., & Findlay, L.M. (2002). Decolonising education in Canadian universities: An interdisciplinary, international, indigenous research project. Canadian Journalof Native Education, 26(2): 8695.Google Scholar
Battiste, M., & Henderson, J.Y. (2000). Protecting Indigenous knowledge and beritage: Saskatoon: Purich.Google Scholar
Binda, K.P., & Calliou, S. (Eds.). (2001). Aboriginal education in Canada: A study in decolonisation: Mississauga, ON: Canadian Educators’ Press.Google Scholar
Blaser, M., Feit, H., & McRae, G.(Eds.). (2004). In the way of development: Indigenous peoples, life projects and globalisation. London: Zed Books/International Development Research Centre.Google Scholar
Borrows, J. (2002). Recovering Canada: The resurgenceof Indigenous law. Toronto: Universityof Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Brantenberg, T. (1985). The Alta-Kautokeino conflict: Saami reindeer herding and ethnopolitics. In Br∅sted, J.et al. (Eds.), Native power: The quest for autonomy and nationhood of Indigenous peoples (pp. 2348). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.Google Scholar
Brantenberg, T. (1991). Norway: Constructing Aboriginal self-government in a nation-state. In Jull, P. & Roberts, S. (Eds.), The challenge of northern regions (pp. 65128). Darwin: Australian National University North Australia Research Unit.Google Scholar
Broadbent, N.D. (Ed.). (1989). Readings in Saami history, culture and language (2nd ed.). Umeå: Center for Arctic Cultural Research, Umeå University.Google Scholar
Brody, H. (2000). The other side of Eden: Hunters, farmers and the shaping of the world. Vancouver: Douglas & Mclntyre.Google Scholar
Brundtland, G.-H. (Ed.). (1987). Our common future: The world commission on environment and development. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Carnoy, M. (1974). Education as cultural imperialism. New York: D. McKay.Google Scholar
Castellano, M.B., Davis, L., & Lahache, L. (Eds.).(2000). Aboriginal education: Fulfilling the promise. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Champagne, D., & Stauss, J., (Eds.). (2002). Native American studies in higher education: Models for collaboration between universities and Indigenous nations. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press.Google Scholar
Christiansen-Ruffman, L., (2004). The gift economy in Atlantic Canada: Reflections of a feminist sociologist. Athanor. 75(8), 283291.Google Scholar
Cook-Lynn, E. (2001). Native studies is politics: The responsibility of Native American studies in an academic setting. In Cook-Lynn, E. (Ed.), Anti-Indianism in modem America: Avoicefrom Tatekeya’s earth. (pp. 151170).Chicago: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Corson, D. (1995). Norway’s “Sami Language Act”: Emancipatory implications for the world’s Aboriginal peoples. Language in Society, 24, 493513.Google Scholar
Dei, G.J.S., Hall, B.L., & Rosenberg, D.G. (Eds.). (2000). Indigenous knowledges in global contexts: Multiple readings of our world. Toronto: University ofToronto Press.Google Scholar
Deloria, B., Foehner, K., & Scinta, S. (Eds.). (1999). Spirit and reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader. Golden, CO: Fulcrum.Google Scholar
Deloria, V. Jr. (1989). Out ofchaos. In Dooling, D.M. & Jordan-Smith, P. (Eds.), become part of it: Sacred dimensions in Native American life. (pp.259269). New York: Parabola.Google Scholar
Deloria, V. Jr. (1999a). Reflection and revelation: Knowing land, places and ourselves. In Treat, J. (Ed.), For this land: Writings of religion in America (pp.250282). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Deloria, V. Jr. (1999b). Christianity and Indigenous religion: Friends or enemies? In Treat, J. (Ed.), For this land: Writings of religion in America (pp.145161). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Deloria, V. (2001). The future of the profession or the unconditional university: (Thanks to the “humanities”, What could takeplace tomorrow) (P. Kamuf, Trans.). In Simmons, L. & Worth, H. (Eds.), Derrida downunder (pp.233247). Palmerston North, NZ: Dunmore.Google Scholar
Eidheim, H. (1985). Indigenous peoples and theState: The Saami case in Norway. In Br∅sted, J.et al. (Ed.), Worth, H. (Eds.), Native power: The quest for autonomy and nationhood of Indigenous peoples (pp.155171). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.Google Scholar
Eidheim, H. (1992). Stages in the development of Samiselfhood (pp.155171). Oslo: Department of Social Anthropology, University of Oslo.Google Scholar
Eidheim, H. (1997). Ethno-political development among the Sami after World War II: The invention of selfhood. In Gaski, H. (Ed.), Sami culture in a new era: The Norwegian Sami experience (pp.2961). Karasjohka: Dawi Girji.Google Scholar
Eikjok, J. (2000). Indigenous women in the north: The struggle for rights and feminism. Indigenous Affairs,3, 3841).Google Scholar
Feiner, S.F. (2003). Reading neoclassical economics: Toward an erotic economy of sharing. In Barker, D.K. & Kuiper, E. (Eds.), Toward a feminist philosophy of economics (pp. 180193). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Findlay, I.M. (2003). Working for postcoloniallegal studies: Working with the Indigenous humanities. Law, Social Justice & Global Development Journal, 1. Retrieved 13 February, 2006, from http://elj.warwick.ac.uk/global/03-1/findlayhtml.Google Scholar
Findlay, L. (2000). Always Indigenize! Theradical humanities in the postcolonial Canadian university. Ariel, 31(1&2), 307326.Google Scholar
Fixico, D.L. (2003). The American Indian mind in alinear world: American Indian Studies and traditional knowledge. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gaski, H. (Ed.). (1997). Sami culture in a new era: The Norwegian Sami experience. Karasjohka: Dawi Girji.Google Scholar
Gaski, H. (Ed.). (1997). Sami culture in a new era: The Norwegian Sami experience. Karasjohka: Dawi Girji.Google Scholar
Gedicks, A. (1993). The new resource wars: Native andenvironmental struggles against multinational corporations. Boston: South End Press.Google Scholar
Grande, S. (2004). Red pedagogy: Native American social and political thought. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
Graveline, F.J. (1998). Circle works: Transforming Eurocentric consciousness. Halifax, NS: Fernwood.Google Scholar
Green, J. (2002a). Decolonising in the eraof globalisation. Canadian Dimension, 3, 3133.Google Scholar
Green, J. (2002b). Decolonising in the eraof globalisation In Hannah, E., Paul, L. & Vethamany-Globus, S. (Eds.), Women in the Canadian academic tundra: Challenging the chill (pp. 8590). Toronto: McGill-Queen’sUniversity Press.Google Scholar
Griffiths, N., & Cervantes, F. (Eds.). (1999). Spiritual encounters: Interactionsbetween Christianity and Native religions in colonial America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Guerrero, M.A.J., (1996). Academic apartheid: American Indian studies and multiculturalism. In Gordon, A.F. & Newfield, C. (Eds.), Mapping Multiculturalism. (pp.4963). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Guissé, E.H. (2003). Working paper on globalisation and the economic, social and cultural Rights of Indigenous Populations. (No. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/2003/14). Geneva: Working Group on Indigenous Populations, United Nations Commission on Human Rights.Google Scholar
Guttorm, E. (1998). Everybody is worth a song. In Helander, E., & Kailo, K. (Eds.), No beginning, no end: The Sami speak up (pp. 6468). Edmonton: Canadian Circumpolar Institute/Nordic Sami Institute.Google Scholar
Hall, A.J. (2003). American empire and the fourth world: The bowl with one spoon (Vol. 1). Toronto: McGill-Queen’s University Press.Google Scholar
Hampton, E. (2000). First nations-controlled university education in Canada. In Castello, M.B., Davis, L. & Lahache, L. (Eds.), Aboriginal education: Fulfilling the promise (pp. 208223). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Harry, D., & Dukepoo, F. (2000). Indians, genes and genetics: What Indians should know about the new biotechnology. Nixon, NV: Indigenous Peoples’ Council on Biocolonialism.Google Scholar
Helander, E. (1990). Situation of the Sami language in Sweden. In Collis, D.R.F. (Ed.), Arctic languages: An awakening (pp. 401418). Paris: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Helander, E. (1990). A Saami strategy for language preservation. In Kvist, R. (Ed.), Readings in Saami history, culture, and language II (pp. 135148). Umeä: Center for Arctic Cultural Research, Umeä University.Google Scholar
Helander, E. (Ed.). (1999). Awakened voice: Sami knowledge. Guovdageaidnu: Sami Instituhtta.Google Scholar
Helander, E., & Kailo, K. (Eds.). (1998a). No beginning, no end: The Sami speak up. Edmonton: Canadian Circumpolar Institute/Nordic Sami Institute.Google Scholar
Helander, E., & Kailo, K. (1998b). The nomadic circle of life: A conversation on the Sami knowledge system and culture. In Kailo, K. & Helander, E. (Eds.), No beginning, no end: The Sami speak up (pp. 163184). Edmonton: Canadian Circumpolar Institute/Nordic Sami Institute.Google Scholar
Henriksen, J.B. (1999). Saami parliamentary co-operation: An analysis. (Bilie, M., Trans.). Guovdageaidnu: Nordic Sámi Institute.Google Scholar
Hirvonen, V. (1996). Research ethics and Sami people- From the woman’s point of view. In Helander, E.,(Ed.), Awakened voice: Sami knowledge (pp. 712). Guovdageaidnu: Nordic Sami Institute.Google Scholar
Hirvonen, V. (2004a). Sámi culture and the school: Reflections by Sámi teachers and the realisation of the Sámi school - An evaluation study of reform 97. (Anttonen, K., Trans.). Karasjok: ɨálliidLágádus.Google Scholar
Holmberg, U. (1987). Lapparnas religion. Uppsala: Centre for Multiethnic Research.Google Scholar
Howard, B.R. (2003). Indigenous peoples andthe state: The struggle for native rights. DeKalb, Ill: Northern Illinois University Press.Google Scholar
Hultkrantz, Å (1962). Die Religion der Lappen. In Hultkrantz, Paulson & Jettmar, (Eds.), Die Religionen Nordeurasiens und der amerikanischen Artktis. Stuttgart (pp. 163184). Edmonton: Canadian Circumpolar Institute/Nordic Sami Institute.Google Scholar
Indigenous Peoples and Globalisation Program. (2003). International forum of globalisation. Retrieved 31 January, 2006, from http://www.ifg.org/programs/indig.htm.Google Scholar
Irwin, K. (1988). Maori, feminist, academic. Sites, 77(Summer), 3038.Google Scholar
Irwin, L. (Ed.). (2000). Native American spirituality: A critical reader. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Isernhagen, H. (1999). Momaday, Vizenor, Armstrong: Conversations on American Indian writing. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
IWGIA (International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs). (1987). Self determination and Indigenous peoples: Sámi rights and northern perspectives. Copenhagen: IWGIA.Google Scholar
JanMohammed, A.R., & Lloyd, D. (Eds.). (1990). The nature and context of minority discourse. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jernsletten, R. (1997, May). Reindrift, samevenner of samisk etnopolitikk i Norden 1945-1975. Paper presented at the Stat, Religion, Etnisitet. Rapport fra Skibotn-Konferansen 27–29. mai, 1996, Tromsø.Google Scholar
Joks, S. (2002). Co-management of marine resources in arctic areas with respect to Indigenous peoples and traditional ecological knowledge. Guovdageaidnu: Sami allaskuvla.Google Scholar
Jull, P. (1995). Through a glass darkly: Scandinavian Sami policy in foreign perspective. In Brantenberg, T., Hansen, J. & Minde, H. (Eds.), Becoming visible: Indigenous politics and self-government (pp. 129140). Tromsø: Centre for Sami Studies, University of Tromsø.Google Scholar
Juuso, I. (1998). Yoiking acts as medicine for me. In Helander, E. & Kailo, K. (Eds.), No beginning no end: The Sami speak up (pp. 132146). Edmonton: Canadian Circumpolar Institute/Nordic Sami Institute.Google Scholar
Kasten, E. (Ed.). (1998). Bicultural education in the north: Ways of preserving and enhancing indigenous peoples’ languages and traditional knowledge. Münster: Waxmann.Google Scholar
Kawagley, A.O. (1995). A Yupiaq worldview: A pathway to ecology and spirit. Prospect Heights, Ill: Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Kelley, C. (Ed.). (1992). Give back: First Nations perspectives on cultural practice. North Vancouver: Gallerie.Google Scholar
Keskitalo, A.-I. (1994). Research as an inter-ethnic relation. Rovaniemi: Arctic Centre, University of Lapland.Google Scholar
Keskitalo, J.H. (1994). Education and cultural policies. In The World Commission on Culture and Development (Ed.), Majority-minority relations: The case of the Sami in Scandinavia (pp. 5056). Guovdageaidnu: Sami Instituhtta.Google Scholar
Kirkness, V.J., & Barnhardt, R. (1990). First Nations and higher education: The four r’s - Respect, relevance, reciprocity, responsibility. Journal of American Indian Education, 30(1) 115.Google Scholar
Kjellström, R. (1987). On the continuity of old Saami religion. In Ahlbäck, T. (Ed.), Saami religion (pp. 2433). Åbo: The Donner Institute for Research in Religious and Cultural History.Google Scholar
Korsmo, F. (1992). Empowerment or termination? Native rights and resource regimes in Alaska and Swedish Lapland. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Korsmo, F. (1993). Swedish policy and Saami rights. The Northern Review, 11(Winter), 3255.Google Scholar
Kuokkanen, R. (2003). Survivance in Sami and First Nations boarding school narratives: Reading novels by Kerttu Vuolab and Shirley Sterling. American Indian Quarterly, 27(3/4), 697727.Google Scholar
Kuokkanen, R. (2004). Towards the hospitality of the academy: The (impossible gift of Indigenous epistemes. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.Google Scholar
Kuokkanen, R. (2005). Workshop: Eamiálbmogiidperspektiivvat dutkamusas ja oahpahusas. Sami allaskuvl: Guovdageaidnu.Google Scholar
Kvernmo, S. (1997). Developing Sami health services: A medical and cultural challenge. In Gaski, H. (Ed.), Sami culture in a new era: The Norwegian Sami experience (pp. 127142). Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji.Google Scholar
Kvist, R. (Ed.). (1990). Reading in Saami history, culture and language. Umeå: Center for Arctic Cultural Research, Umeå University.Google Scholar
Laenui, P. (2000). Processes of decolonisation. In Battiste, M. (Ed.), Reclaiming Indigenous voice and vision (pp. 150160). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Laestadius, L.L. (1994). Katkelmia lappalaisten mythologiasta (Outakoski, N., Trans.). Karigasniemi: Deanu Kultur ja Musea.Google Scholar
LaRocque, E. (2001). From the land to the classroom: Broadening epistemology. In Oakes, J., Riewe, R., Bennett, M. & Chrishold, B. (Eds.), Pushing the margins: Native and northern studies (pp. 6275). Winnipeg: Native Studies Press.Google Scholar
Lehtola, V.P. (2002). The Sámi people: Tradition in transition (Müller-Wille, L.W., Trans.). Inari: Kustannus Puntsi.Google Scholar
Lukkari, R.M. (1998). Where did the laughter go? In Helander, E. & Kailo, K. (Eds.), No beginning, no end: The Sami speak up (pp. 103110). Edmonton: Canadian Circumpolar Institute/Nordic Sami Institute.Google Scholar
Lutz, H. (1991). Contemporary challenges: Conversations with Canadian Native authors. Saskatoon: Fifth House.Google Scholar
Manker, E. (1938). Die Lappisde Zaubertrommel 1. Stockholm: Bokförlags Akteibolaget Thule.Google Scholar
Manker, E. (1950). Die Lappische Zaubertrommel 2. Stockholm: Hugo Gebers Förlag.Google Scholar
McConaghy, C. (2000). Rethinking Indigenous education: Culturalism, colonalism, and the politics of knowing. Flaxton: QLD: Post Pressed.Google Scholar
Medicine, B. with Jacobs, S.J. (2001). Learning to be an anthropologist and remaining “native”: Selected writings. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Mgbeoji, I. (2005). Global Biopiracy: Patents, plants, and Indigenous knowledge. Vancouver: Univeristy of British Columbia Press/George Washington University Press.Google Scholar
Mihesuah, D.A. (Ed.). (1998). Natives and academics: Researching and writing about American Indians. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Mihesuah, D.A. (Ed.). (2003). Native experiences in the ivory tower. American Indian Quarterly, 27CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mihesuah, D.A., & Wilson, A.C. (2004). Indigenising the academy: Transforming scholarship and empowering communities. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Minde, H. (1996). The making of an international movement of Indigenous peoples. Scandinavian Journal of History, 21(3), 221246.Google Scholar
Minde, H. (2001). Sami land rights in Norway: A test case for Indigenous peoples. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 8(2/3), 107125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moreiras, A. (2004). On infinite decolonisation. English Studies in Canada, 30(2), 2128.Google Scholar
Mulk, I.-M. (1994). Sacrificial places and their meaning in Saami society. In Carmichael, D.L., Hubert, J., Reeves, B. & Schanche, A. (Eds.), Sacred Sites, Sacred Places (pp. 121131). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Müller-Wille, L., & Weber Müller-Wille, L. (Eds.). (1993). Changes in contemporary northern societies: Northern studies forum. Montreal/ Guovdageaidnu: Northern Studies Program/Sami Instituhtta.Google Scholar
Niemi, E. (1997). Sami history and the frontier myth: A perspective on the Northern Sami spatial and rights history. In Gaski, H. (Ed.), Sami culture in a new era: The Norwegian Sami experience (pp. 6285). Kárášjohka: Dawi Girji.Google Scholar
Oakes, J., Riewe, R., Bennett, M., & Chrishold, B. (Eds.). (2001). Pushing the margins: Native and northern studies. Winnipeg: Native Studies Press.Google Scholar
Oakes, J., Riewe, R., Wilde, K., Edmunds, A., & Dubois, A. (Eds.). (2003). Native voices in research. Winnipeg: Aboriginal Issues Press.Google Scholar
Olsson, S.E., & Lewis, D. (1995). Welfare rules and Indigenous rights: The Sami people and the Nordic welfare states. In Dixon, J. & Scheureil, R.P. (Eds.), Social Welfare with Indigenous Peoples (pp. 141187). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Paltto, K. (1989). Guovtteoaivvatnisu. Ohcejohka: Gielas.Google Scholar
Paltto, K. (1998). One cannot leave one’s soul by a tree trunk. In Helander, E. & Kailo, K. (Eds.), No beginning, no end: The Sami speak up (pp. 2342). Edmonton: Canadian Circumpolar Institute/Nordic Sami Institute.Google Scholar
Pennanen, J., & Näkkäläjärvi, K. (2004). Siiddastallan: From Lapp communities to modem Sámi life (Anttonen, K. & Müller-Wille, L.W., Trans.). Inari: Siida Inari Sámi Museum.Google Scholar
Pentikäinen, J. (1995). Saamelaiset: Pohjoisen kansan mytologia. Helsinki: Suomen kirjallisuuden seura.Google Scholar
Porsanger, J. (2004). A close relationship to nature: The basis of religion (Anttonen, K. & Müller-Wille, L.W., Trans.). In Pennanen, J. & Näkkäläjärvi, K. (Eds.), Siiddastallan: From Lapp communities to modem Sámi life (pp. 151154). Inari: Siida Inari Sámi Museum.Google Scholar
Posey, D.A., & Dutfield, G. (1996). Beyond intellectual property: Toward traditional resource rights for Indigenous peoples and local communities. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.Google Scholar
Ränk, G. (1955). Lapp female deities of the Madder-akka group. Studia Septentrionalia, 4, 779.Google Scholar
Ruthven, K.K. (Ed.). (1992). Beyond the disciplines: The new humanities. Canberra: Highland.Google Scholar
Salvesen, H. (1995). “Sami ¿Ednan: Four states - One nation”: Nordic minority policy and the history of the Sami. In Pennanen, S. (Ed.), Ethnicity and nation building in the Nordic world (pp. 106144). London: Hurst & Co.Google Scholar
Sami Council. (2002). The difference between minorities and Indigenous peoples under international law: Statement to the Council of Europe, 10 January. Ohcejohka: Sami Council.Google Scholar
Scheffer, J. (1751). The history of Lapland: Shewing the original, manner, habits, religion and trade of that people with a particular account of their gods and sacrifices, marriage ceremonies, conjurations, diabolical rites, . London: R. Griffiths.Google Scholar
Seurujärvi-Kari, I., & Kulonen, U.-M. (Eds.). (1996). Essays on Indigenous identity and rights. Helsinki: Yliopistopaino - Helsinki University Press.Google Scholar
Shiva, V. (1993). Monocultures of the mind: Perspective on biodiversity and biotechnology. London: Zed.Google Scholar
Shiva, V. (1997). Biopiracy: The plunder of nature andknowledge. Boston, MA: South End Press.Google Scholar
Sillanpää, L. (1994). Political and administrative responses to Sami self-determination: A comparative study of public administrations in Fennoscandia on the issue of Sami land title as an Aboriginal right. Helsinki: Societas Scientarum Fennica.Google Scholar
Smith, C., & Ward, G. (2000). Indigenous cultures in an interconnected world. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Smith, L. (1992, November). Ko Taku Ta Te Maori: The dilemma of a Maori academic. Paper presented at the New Zealand Association for Research in Education and the Australian Association for Research in Education joint conference, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.Google Scholar
Smith, L. (1999). Decolonising methodologies: Research and Indigenous peoples. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Sommarstròm, B. (1991). The Saami shaman’s drum and the Star Horizon. Stockholm.Google Scholar
Suzack, C. (2004). On the practical “untidiness” of “always indigenizing.” English Studies in Canada, 30(2), 13.Google Scholar
Todal, J. (1999). Minorities with a minority: Language and the school in the Sami areas of Norway. In May, S. (Ed.), Indigenous community-based education (pp. 124136). Sydney: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Turi, J. (1987). Muitalus sàmiid birra. Johkamohkki: Sámi Girjjit.Google Scholar
Van Gerwen-Toyne, M. (2001). Traditional ecological knowledge and university curriculum. In Oakes, J., Riewe, R., Bennett, M. & Chrishold, B. (Eds.), Pushing the margins: Native and northern studies (pp. 8489). Winnipeg: Native Studies Press.Google Scholar
Vorren, Ø. (1980). Circular sacrificai sites and their function. In Bàckman, L. & Hultkranz, Å (Eds.), Saami pre-Christian religion: Studies on the oldest traces of religion among the Saamis (pp. 6982). Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.Google Scholar
Waters, A. (2004). American Indian thought: Philosophical essays. Maiden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
WGIP (UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations). (2003). Report of the working group on Indigenous populations on its 21st Session (No. E/CN.4/ Sub.2/2003/22). Geneva: United Nations Commission on Human Rights.Google Scholar