Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T15:39:32.536Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Corrective Reading: An Evidence‐Based Remedial Reading Intervention

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 February 2016

Kerry Hempenstall
Kerry Hempenstall*
Affiliation:
RMIT University, Bundoora, Australia
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article first examines recent theoretical and empirical research on reading development and instruction in English‐speaking countries. Then, a study is described that examines the effects of a synthetic phonics‐emphasis Direct Instruction remedial reading program on the phonological processes of students, with teacher‐identified serious reading problems, attending several Melbourne suburban schools. The 206 students (150 males and 56 females, mean age 9.7 years) were pre‐tested on a battery of phonological tests, and assigned to the treatment condition or to a wait‐list comparison group. The 134 students in the intervention group received the 65 lessons (in groups of up to 10) of the Corrective Reading: Decoding program from reading teachers at their schools. When compared with a similar cohort of 72 wait‐list students from the same schools, the students made statistically significant and educationally large gains in the phonologically‐related processes of word attack, phonemic awareness, and spelling, and statistically significant and moderately large gains in phonological recoding in lexical access, and phonological recoding in working memory. The study contributes to an understanding of the relationship between phonological processes and reading, and to an approach to efficiently assisting students whose underdeveloped decoding places their educational progress at risk.

Type
Research Article
Information
Australasian Journal of Special Education , Volume 32 , Issue 1: A Scientific Approach to Special Education , April 2008 , pp. 23 - 54
Copyright
Copyright © The Australian Association of Special Education 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, G., & Engelmann, S. (1996). Research on Direct Instruction: 25 years beyond DISTAR. Seattle, WA: Educational Achievement Systems.Google Scholar
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Alexander, A. W., Anderson, H. G., Heilman, P. C., Voeller, K. K. S., & Torgesen, J. K. (1991). Phonological awareness training and remediation of analytic decoding deficits in a group of severe dyslexics. Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 193–206.Google Scholar
American Federation of Teachers. (1997). Building on the best: Learning from what works. Retrieved November 11, 2003, from http://www.aft.org/Edissues/whatworks/index.htm.Google Scholar
American Institutes for Research. (1999). An educators’ guide to schoolwide reform. Retrieved November 11, 2003, from www.aasa.org/Reform/index.htm.Google Scholar
American Institutes for Research. (2005). CSRQ Center Report on Elementary School Comprehensive School Reform Models. Retrieved February 12, 2005, from http://www.csrq.org/reports.asp.Google Scholar
American Institutes for Research. (2006). CSRQ Center Report on Elementary School Comprehensive School Reform Models (Updated). Retrieved December 11, 2006, from http://www.csrq.org/documents/CSRQCenterCombinedReport_Web11-03-06.pdf.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association. (1993, October). Final Report of the Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures. New York: American Psychological Association, Division of Clinical Psychologists (Division 12).Google Scholar
Bentin, S., & Leshem, H. (1993). On the interaction between phonological awareness and reading acquisition: It’s a two-way street. Annals of Dyslexia, 43, 125–148.Google Scholar
Borman, G. (2007). Taking reform to scale. Wisconsin Center for Educational Research. Retrieved February 4, 2007, from http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/.Google Scholar
Borman, G. D., Hewes, G. M., Overman, L. T., & Brown, S. (2002). Comprehensive school reform and student achievement: A meta-analysis. Report No.59. Washington, DC: Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk (CRESPAR), US Department of Education. Retrieved February 12, 2003, from http://www.csos.jhu.edu./crespar/techReports/report59.pdf.Google Scholar
Bowers, P. G. (1995). Tracing symbol naming speeds unique contributions to reading disabilities over time. Reading and Writing, 7, 189–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowers, P. G., & Swanson, L. B. (1991). Naming speed deficits in reading disability. Multiple measures of a singular process. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 51, 195–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowey, J. A., Cain, M. T., & Ryan, S. M. (1992). A reading-level design study of phonological skills underlying fourth-grade children’s word reading difficulties. Child Development, 63, 999–1011.Google Scholar
Bowey, J. A., & Francis, J. (1991). Phonological analysis as a function of age and exposure to reading instruction. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 91–121.Google Scholar
Branwhite, A. B. (1983). Boosting reading skills by direct instruction. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 53, 291–298.Google Scholar
Brigance, A. H. (1992). Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills. Melbourne, Australia: Hawker Brownlow.Google Scholar
Burt, J. S., & Butterworth, P. (1996). Spelling in adults: Orthographic transparency, learning new letter string and reading accuracy. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 8(1), 3–43.Google Scholar
Carnine, D. (1995). Trustworthiness, usability, and accessibility of educational research. Journal of Behavioral Education, 5, 251–258.Google Scholar
Castles, I. (1994). SEIFA: Socio-economic indexes for areas. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Printer.Google Scholar
Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy. (2002). Bringing evidence driven progress to education: A recommended strategy for the U.S. Department of Education. Council for Excellence in Government’s Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy. Retrieved December 12, 2002, from http://www.excelgov.org/displayContent.asp?Keyword=prppcEvidence.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi experimentation. Design and analysis issues for field settings. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.Google Scholar
Council for Exceptional Children. (1999). Focussing on direct instruction. Retrieved November 11, 2003, from http://dldcec.org/alerts/alerts_2.html.Google Scholar
Crowder, R., & Wagner, R. (1992). The psychology of reading: An introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Curriculum Review Panel. (2004). Review of comprehensive programs. Oregon Reading First Center. Retrieved January 16, 2005, from http://reading.uoregon.edu/curricula/core_report_amended_3-04.pdf.Google Scholar
Davidson, M., & Jenkins, J. R. (1994). Effects of phonemic processes on word reading and spelling. Journal of Educational Research, 87, 148–157.Google Scholar
Deeney, T., Wolf, M., & Goldberg O’Rourke, A. (2001). ‘I like to take my own sweet time’: Case study of a child with naming-speed deficits and reading disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 35, 145–155.Google Scholar
Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. (1976). Rapid automatised naming (RAN): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471–479.Google Scholar
Department for Education and Employment. (1998). The National Literacy Strategy: Framework for teaching. London: Standards and Effectiveness Unit.Google Scholar
Department of Education, Employment, and Training. (2001). Successful interventions literacy research project. Retrieved March 30, 2007, from http://www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/edulibrary/public/curricman/middleyear/research/successfulinterventions.doc.Google Scholar
Department of Education, Science, and Training. (2005). Teaching reading: Report and recommendations. National Inquiry into the Teaching of Reading. Australia: Melbourne.Google Scholar
Department of Education, Science, and Training. (2007). Parents’ attitudes to schooling. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government. Retrieved June 4, 2007, from http://www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/311AA3E6-412E-4FA4-AC01-541F37070529/16736/ParentsAttitudestoSchoolingreporMay073.rtf.Google Scholar
Ehri, L. C. (1995). Phases of development in learning to read words by sight. Journal of Research in Reading, 18(2), 116–125.Google Scholar
Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36, 250–287.Google Scholar
Elbro, C., Nielsen, I., & Petersen, D. K. (1994). Dyslexia in adults. Evidence for deficits in nonword reading and in the phonological representation of lexical items. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 205–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, N. C. (1990). Reading, phonological processing and STM: Interactive tributaries of development. Journal of Research in Reading, 13, 107–122.Google Scholar
Engelmann, S. (2004). The Dalmatian and its spots. Editorial Projects in Education, 23(20), 34–35, 48. Retrieved February 3, 2004, from http://www.edweek.org/ew/ew_printstory.cfm?slug=20engelmann.h23.Google Scholar
Engelmann, S., Becker, W. C., Carnine, D., & Gersten, R. (1988). The Direct Instruction Follow Through Model: Design and outcomes. Education and Treatment of Children, 11(4), 303–317.Google Scholar
Engelmann, S., & Bruner, E. C. (1984). Reading Mastery fast cycle I, II. Chicago: Science Research Associates.Google Scholar
Engelmann, S., & Bruner, E. C. (1988). Reading Mastery. Chicago: Science Research Associates.Google Scholar
Engelmann, S., Hanner, S., & Johnson, G. (1999). Corrective Reading—Series Guide. Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Felton, R. H. (1992). Early identification of children at risk for reading disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 12, 212–229.Google Scholar
Grossen, B. (Ed.) (1996). What was that project follow through? [Special issue] Effective School Practices, 15(1), 1–85.Google Scholar
Grossen, B. (1998). The research base for Corrective Reading, SRA. Blacklick, OH: Science Research Associates.Google Scholar
Grossen, B. (2004). Success of a Direct Instruction model at a secondary level school with high-risk students. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 20, 161–178.Google Scholar
Hammill, D. (2004). What we know about correlates of reading. Exceptional Children, 70, 453–469.Google Scholar
Harris, R. E., Marchand-Martella, N. E., & Martella, R. C. (2000). Effects of a peer-delivered Corrective Reading program. Journal of Behavioral Education, 10(1), 21–36.Google Scholar
Harrison, B. (2002, April). Do we have a literacy crisis? Reading Reform Foundation, 48. Retrieved April 11, 2003, from http://www.rrf.org.uk/do%20we%20have%20a%20literacy%20crisis.htm.Google Scholar
Hatcher, P., Hulme, C., & Ellis, A. (1994). Ameliorating reading failure by integrating the teaching of reading and phonological skills: The phonological linkage hypothesis. Child Development, 65, 41–57.Google Scholar
Hempenstall, K. (1995). The Picture Naming Test. Unpublished manuscript. Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology.Google Scholar
Hempenstall, K. (1996). The gulf between educational research and policy: The example of Direct Instruction and Whole Language. Behavior Change, 13, 33–46.Google Scholar
Hempenstall, K. (2001). Some issues in phonics instruction. EducationNews.Org. Retrieved May 3, 2005, from http://www.ednews.org/articles/528/1/Some-issues-in-phonics-instruction-Implicit-and-explicit-phonics-instruction/Page1.html.Google Scholar
Hempenstall, K. (2003). The three-cueing system: Trojan horse? Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8(3), 15–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hempenstall, K. (2006). What does evidence-based practice in education mean? Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11(2), 83–92.Google Scholar
Hoad, K-A., Munro, J., Pearn, C., Rowe, K. S., & Rowe, K. J. (2005). Working Out What Works (WOWW) Training and Resource Manual: A teacher professional development program designed to support teachers to improve literacy and numeracy outcomes for students with learning difficulties in Years 4, 5 and 6. Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training; and Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.Google Scholar
Hogan, T. P., Catts, H. W., & Little, T. D. (2005). The relationship between phonological awareness and reading: Implications for the assessment of phonological awareness. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36(4), 285–293.Google Scholar
Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing, 2, 127–160.Google Scholar
Hulme, C., & Roodenrys, S. (1995). Practitioner review: Verbal working memory development and its disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 373–398.Google Scholar
Johnston, R. S., & Watson, J. E. (2004). Accelerating the development of reading, spelling and phonemic awareness skills in initial readers. Reading and Writing, 17, 327–357.Google Scholar
Johnston, T., & Kirby, J. (2006). The contribution of naming speed to the simple view of reading. Reading and Writing, 19(4), 339–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorm, A. F., Share, D., Matthews, R., & Maclean, R. (1986). Behaviour problems in specific reading retarded and general reading backward children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27(1), 33–43.Google Scholar
Livingstone, T. (2006, 14 October). Rating the system. The Courier Mail, p. 53.Google Scholar
Louden, W., Chan, L. K. S., Elkins, J., Greaves, D., House, H., & Milton, M. ,et al. (2000). Mapping the territory—Primary students with learning difficulties: Literacy and numeracy. (Vols. 1–3). Canberra, Australia: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.Google Scholar
Lovett, M. W., Borden, S. L., De Luca, T., Lacerenza, L., Benson, N. J., & Brackstone, D. (1994). Treating the core deficit of developmental dyslexia: Evidence of transfer of learning after phonologically- and strategy-based reading training programs. Developmental Psychology, 30, 805–822.Google Scholar
Lovett, M. W., Borden, S. L., Lacerenza, L., Frijters, J. C., Steinbach, K. A., & De Palma, M. (2000). Components of effective remediation for developmental reading disabilities: Combining phonological and strategy-based instruction to improve outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 263–283.Google Scholar
Lovett, M. W., & Steinbach, K. A. (1997). The effectiveness of remedial programs for reading disabled children of different ages: Does the benefit decrease for older children? Learning Disability Quarterly, 20, 189–209.Google Scholar
Lyon, G. R. (1998). Overview of reading and literacy initiatives. Statement to Committee on Labor and Human Resources. Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/jeffords.htm.Google Scholar
Lyon, G. R., & Moats, L. C. (1997). Critical conceptual and methodological considerations in reading intervention research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 578–588.Google Scholar
Malmgren, K. W., & Leone, P. E. (2000). Effects of a short-term auxiliary reading program on the reading skills of incarcerated youth. Education & Treatment of Children, 23(3), 239–247.Google Scholar
Marks, G. N., & Ainley, J. (1997). Reading comprehension and numeracy among junior secondary school students in Australia. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.Google Scholar
McCluskey, N. (2003). Best bets: Education curricula that work. The Center for Education Reform. Retrieved July 18, 2003, from http://www.edreform.com/pubs/bestbets.pdf.Google Scholar
Moats, L. C. (1994). Assessment of spelling in learning disabilities research. In Lyon, G. R. (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 333–350). Baltimore, MD: P. H. Brookes.Google Scholar
Nation, K., & Hulme, C. (1997). Phonemic segmentation, not onset-rime segmentation, predicts early reading and spelling skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 32(2), 154–167.Google Scholar
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read. Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org. Google Scholar
Newby, R. F., Recht, D. R., & Caldwell, J. (1993). Validation of a clinical method for the diagnosis of two subtypes of dyslexia. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 11, 72–83.Google Scholar
Office of Management and Budget. (2007). Program assessment: Reading First State Grants. Retrieved May 11, from http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/expectmore/summary/10003321. 2006.html.Google Scholar
Office of the Victorian Auditor General. (2003). Improving literacy standards in government schools. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.audit.vic.gov.au/reports_par/Literacy_Report.pdf.Google Scholar
Olson, R., Forsberg, H., Wise, B., & Rack, J. (1994). Measurement of word recognition, orthographic, and phonological skills. In Lyon, G. R. (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 243–278). Baltimore, MD: P.H.Brookes.Google Scholar
Oregon Reading First. (2004). Consumer’s guide to evaluating supplemental and intervention reading programs Grades K–3: A critical elements analysis. Retrieved January 11, 2006, from http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/downloads/corrective_rdg_levela.pdf.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., Beck, I., Bell, L. C., & Hughes, C. (1987). Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 283–319.Google Scholar
Plaza, M. (2003). The role of naming speed, phonological processing and morphological/syntactic skill in the reading and spelling performance of second-grade children. Current Psychology Letters. Special Issue on Language Disorders and Reading Acquisition. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from http://cpl.revues.org/document88.html.Google Scholar
Primary National Strategy. (2006). Primary framework for literacy and mathematics. London: Department of Education and Skills. Retrieved 26 October, 2006, from http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primaryframeworks/.Google Scholar
Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., & Oberklaid, F. (1995). Reading disability in an Australian community sample. Australian Journal of Psychology, 47(1), 32–37.Google Scholar
Purdie, N., & Ellis, L. (2005). A review of the empirical evidence identifying effective interventions and teaching practices for students with learning difficulties in Years 4, 5 and 6. A report prepared for the Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training Camberwell, Victoria, Australia: Australian Council for Educational Research.Google Scholar
Reynolds, M., & Wheldall, K. (2007). Reading Recovery 20 years down the track: Looking forward, looking back. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 54(2), 199–223.Google Scholar
Rosenshine, B. (2002). Helping students from low-income homes read at grade level. Journal for Students Placed at Risk, 7. Retrieved March 19, 2003, from http://faculty.ed.uiuc.edu/rosenshi/Helping%20at-risk%20readers.htm.Google Scholar
Sackett, D., McRosenberg, W., Muir Gray, J. A., Haynes, R. B., & Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence-Based Medicine: What it is and what it isn’t. British Medical Journal, 312, 71–2. Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://cebm.jr2.ox.ac.uk/ebmisisnt.html#coredef.Google Scholar
Sattler, J. M. (1992). Assessment of children (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA: Jerome M. Sattler.Google Scholar
Schacter, J. (1999). Reading programs that work: A review of programs for pre-kindergarten to 4th grade. Retrieved November 11, 2003, from http://www.mff.org/edtech/publication.taf?_function=detail&Content_uid1=279.Google Scholar
Shankweiler, D., Lundquist, E., Dreyer, L. G., & Dickinson, C. C. (1996). Reading and spelling difficulties in high school students: Causes and consequences. Reading and Writing, 8, 267–294.Google Scholar
Share, D. L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55, 151–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Share, D. L., & Blum, P. (2005). Syllable splitting in literate and preliterate Hebrew speakers: Onsets and rimes or bodies and codas? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 92(2), 182–202.Google Scholar
Share, D. L., & Stanovich, K. E. (1995). Cognitive processes in early reading development: Accommodating individual differences into a model of acquisition. Issues in Education, 1, 1–57.Google Scholar
Shaughnessy, M. F. (2007). An interview with G. Reid Lyon: About Reading First. EducationNews.Org. Retrieved June 20, from http://www.ednews.org/articles/13053/1/An-Interview-with-G-Reid-Lyon-About-Reading-First/Page1.html.Google Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P. (2007). The neuroscience of nurturing neurons. Children of the Code. Retrieved March 1, 2007, from http://www.childrenofthecode.org/interviews/shonkoff.htm.Google Scholar
Slavin, R. E. (1990). Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Slavin, R. E. (2003). A reader’s guide to scientifically based research. Educational Leadership, 60(5), 12–16. Retrieved December 16, 2003, from http://www.ascd.org/publications/ed_lead/ 200302/slavin.html.Google Scholar
Slavin, R. E. (2004). Education research can and must address ‘What Works’ questions. Educational Researcher, 33(1), 27–28.Google Scholar
Slavin, R. E. (2007). Statement of Robert E. Slavin, Director, Center for Data-Driven Reform in Education. Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Activities. Hearings on Implementation of No Child Left Behind. March 14, 2007. Retrieved March 16, 2007, from http://www.ednews.org/articles/8996/1/Statement-of-Robert-E-Slavin-Director-Center-for-Data-Driven-Reform-in-Education/Page1.html.Google Scholar
Smith, S. A. (2004). What is Corrective Reading? Tallahassee, FL: Florida Center for Reading Research. Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://www.fcrr.org/FCRRReports/PDF/corrective_reading_final.pdf.Google Scholar
Snow, C. E., Burns, S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Report of the National Research Council. Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/reading/.Google Scholar
Stage, S. A., & Wagner, R. K. (1992). Development of young children’ phonological and orthographic knowledge as revealed by their spellings. Developmental Psychology, 28, 287–296.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360–406.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1988). Explaining the differences between the dyslexic and the garden-variety poor reader: The phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 590–604.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1994). Constructivism in reading education. Journal of Special Education, 28, 259–274.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E., & Siegel, L. S. (1994). Phenotypic performance profile of children with reading disabilities: A regression-based test of the phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(1), 24–53.Google Scholar
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. [Computer Software] (1995). Chicago: SPSS.Google Scholar
Stone, J. E. (1996, April 23). Developmentalism: An obscure but pervasive restriction on educational improvement. Education Policy Analysis Archives. Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/epaa.Google Scholar
Texas, Office of the Governor. (1996). The Texas Reading Initiative: Mobilizing Resources for Literacy. Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://www.governor.state.tx.us/_private/old/Reading/overview.html.Google Scholar
Torgesen, J. K. (2003). Using science, energy, patience, consistency, and leadership to reduce the number of children left behind in reading. Barksdale Reading Institute, Florida. Retrieved May 3, 2004, from http://www.fcrr.org/staffpresentations/Joe/NA/mississippi_03.ppt.Google Scholar
Torgesen, J. K., & Bryant, B. (1994). Test of Phonological Awareness: Examiner’s Manual. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Google Scholar
Torgesen, J. K., & Hudson, R. F. (2006). Reading fluency: Critical issues for struggling readers. In Samuels, S. J., & Farstrup, A. E. (Eds.), What research has to say about fluency instruction (pp. 130–158). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.Google Scholar
Torgesen, J., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C., Alexander, A., & Conway, T. (1997). Preventative and remedial interventions for children with severe reading disabilities. Learning Disabilities, 8, 51–61.Google Scholar
Trezek, B. J., & Malmgren, K. W. (2005). The efficacy of utilizing a phonics treatment package with middle school deaf and hard-of-hearing students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 3, 257–271.Google Scholar
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Sipay, E. R., Small, S. G., Pratt, A., & Chen, R. et al. (1996). Cognitive profiles of difficult to remediate and readily remediated poor readers: Early intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as basic causes of specific reading disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 601–638.Google Scholar
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., & Tanzman, M. S. (1994). Component of reading ability: Issues and problems in operationalizing word identification, phonological coding, and orthographic coding. In Lyon, G. R. (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 279–332). Baltimore, MD: P.H. Brookes.Google Scholar
Wadsworth, S., DeFries, J., Fulker, D., Olson, R., & Pennington, B. (1995). Reading performance and verbal short-term memory: A twin study of reciprocal causation. Intelligence, 20, 145–167.Google Scholar
Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 192–212.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Westwood, P. S. (2005). Spelling: Approaches to teaching and assessment (2nd ed.). Camberwell, Victoria, Australia: ACER Press.Google Scholar
White, W. A. T. (1988). A meta-analysis of the effects of direct instruction in special education. Education & Treatment of Children, 11, 364–374.Google Scholar
Wolf, M. (1991). Naming speed and reading. The contribution of the cognitive neurosciences. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 123–141.Google Scholar
Woodcock, R. W. (1987). Woodcock Tests of Reading Mastery—Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar