Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T00:56:20.358Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Conflict Between the Interventions That Prevent Burnout and the Culture of Modern Capitalism: The Benefits of Ambivalent Emotions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 June 2012

Simon A. Moss  and
Grace Couchman
Simon A. Moss*
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, Deakin University, Australia
Grace Couchman
Affiliation:
School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University
*
address for correspondence: Dr Simon Moss, Deakin University, Burwood Campus, School of Psychology, 221 Burwood Hwy, Burwood VIC 2125, Australia. Email: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

At work, burnout is one of the most pervasive impediments to mental health. Over the last decade, researchers have distilled six workplace conditions that prevent or curb burnout: feasible job demands, a sense of fit with the job or organisation, recurrent experiences of reward, a feeling of control, a perception of justice, and a connection with the community. Unfortunately, the emerging culture of modern capitalism is characterised by fluctuating demands, aversions towards specialisation, systemic disloyalty, unilateral resolutions, expedient decisions, and transactional relationships — trends that counteract the conditions that prevent burnout. Initiatives that are instituted to curb burnout, therefore, often contradict the imperatives of managers. To resolve this paradox, this article distills a series of initiatives that psychologists can apply to alleviate burnout without counteracting the prevailing culture of modern organisations. To illustrate, employees should be encouraged to seek challenging and stressful experiences, invoke their intuition when composed, and disclose their personal anxieties. This article then integrates these initiatives into a unified theory. According to this theory, practices that prevent burnout all increase the likelihood that individuals experience positive and negative feelings concurrently; these ambivalent emotions seem to enhance wellbeing and contain burnout.

Keywords

ambivalenceburnoutcapitalismemotional regulationfitsocial support
Type
Articles
Information
The Australasian Journal of Organisational Psychology , Volume 5 , December 2012 , pp. 13 - 24
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alter, A.L., Aronson, J., Darley, J.M., Rodriguez, C., & Ruble, D.N. (2010). Rising to the threat: Reducing stereotype threat by reframing the threat as a challenge. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 166–171.Google Scholar
Andrews, P.W., & Thompson, A.J. (2009). The bright side of being blue: Depression as an adaptation for analyzing complex problems. Psychological Review, 116, 620–654.Google Scholar
Arnold, K.A., Turner, N., Barling, J., Kelloway, E.K., & McKee, M.C. (2007). Transformational leadership and psychological well-being: The mediating role of meaningful work. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12, 193–203.Google Scholar
Attridge, M. (2005). The business case for the integration of employee assistance, work-life, and wellness services. A literature review. In Attridge, M.Herlihy, P.A. & Maiden, R.D. (Eds.), The integration of employees assistance, work/life, and wellness services (pp. 31–55). New York: Haworth.Google Scholar
Baccus, J.R., Baldwin, M.W., & Packer, D.J. (2004). Increasing implicit self-esteem through classical conditioning. Psychological Science, 15, 498–502.Google Scholar
Back, M.D., Krause, S., Hirschmuller, S., Stopfer, J.M., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S.C. (2009). Unraveling the three faces of self-esteem: A new information-processing sociometer perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 933–937.Google Scholar
Baumann, N., & Kuhl, J. (2003). Self-infiltration: Confusing assigned tasks as self-selected in memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 487–497.Google Scholar
Baumann, N., & Kuhl, J. (2005). How to resist temptation: The effects of external control versus autonomy support on self-regulatory dynamics. Journal of Personality, 73, 443–470.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R.F. (1991). Meanings of life. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R.F., & Vohs, K.D. (2007). Self-regulation, ego depletion, and motivation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 115–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R.F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D.M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252–1265.Google Scholar
Beal, D.J., Cohen, R.R., Burke, M.J., & McLendon, C.L. (2003). Cohesion and performance in groups: A meta-analytic clarification of construct relations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 989–1004.Google Scholar
Beehr, T.A., Bowling, N.A., & Bennett, M.M. (2010). Occupational stress and failures of social support: When helping hurts. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15, 45–59.Google Scholar
Blascovich, J., & Mendes, W.B. (2000). Challenge and threat appraisals: The role of affective cues. In Forgas, J. (Ed.), Feeling and thinking: The role of affect in social cognition. (pp. 59–82). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bolte, A., Goschke, T., & Kuhl, J. (2003). Emotion and intuition: Effects of positive and negative mood on implicit judgments of semantic coherence. Psychological Science, 14, 416–421.Google Scholar
Bond, J., Thompson, C., Galinsky, E., & Prottas, D. (2003). Highlights of the National Study of the Changing Workforce. New York: Family and Work Institute.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachments and healthy human development. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Brinol, P., Petty, R.E., & Barden, J. (2007). Happiness versus sadness as a determinant of thought confidence in persuasion: A self-validation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 711–727.Google Scholar
Brodsky, A. (1996). Resilient single mothers in risky neighborhoods: Negative psychological sense of community. Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 347–363.3.0.CO;2-R>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, K.W., & Ryan, R.M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buunk, B.P., & Schaufeli, W.B. (1993). Professional burnout: A perspective from social comparison theory. In Schaufeli, W.B.Maslach, C. & Marek, T. (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 53–69). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Campbell-Sills, L., Barlow, D.H., Brown, T.A., & Hofmann, S. (2006). Acceptability and suppression of negative emotion in anxiety and mood disorders. Emotion, 6, 587–595.Google Scholar
Carver, C.S., & Scheier, M.F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control-process view. Psychological Review, 97, 19–35.Google Scholar
Ceja, L., & Navarro, J. (2009). Dynamics of flow: A nonlinear perspective. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10, 665–684.Google Scholar
Chen, X.P., Hui, C., & Sego, D.J. (1998). The role of organizational citizenship behavior in turnover: Conceptualization and preliminary tests of key hypotheses. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 922–931.Google Scholar
Collins, N.L., & Feeney, B.C. (2004). Working models of attachment shape perceptions of social support: Evidence from experimental and observational studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 363–383.Google Scholar
Collins, N.L., Ford, M.B., Guichard, A.C., & Allard, L. (2006). Working models of attachment and attribution processes in intimate relationship. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 201–219.Google Scholar
Cordes, C.L., & Dougherty, T.W. (1993). A review and an integration of research on job burnout. Academy of Management Review, 18, 621–656.Google Scholar
Cosley, B.J., McCoy, S.K., Saslow, L.S., & Epel, E.S. (2010). Is compassion for others stress buffering? Consequences of compassion and social support for physiological reactivity to stress. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 816–823.Google Scholar
Crozier, M. (1964). The bureaucratic phenomenon. London: Tavistock Publications.Google Scholar
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & LeFevre, J. (1989). Optimal experience in work and leisure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 815–822.Google Scholar
D'Amato, A., & Herzfeldt, R. (2008). Learning orientation, organizational commitment and talent retention across generations: A study of European managers. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23, 929–953.Google Scholar
Dandeneau, S.D., Baldwin, M.W., Baccus, J.R., Sakellaropoulo, M., & Pruessner, J.C. (2007). Cutting stress off at the pass: Reducing vigilance and responsiveness to social threat by manipulating attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 651–666.Google Scholar
Davis, E.P., & Steil, B. (2001). Institutional investors. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
de Lange, A.H., Taris, T.W., Kompier, M.A.J., Houtman, I.R.D., & Bongers, P.M. (2003). ‘The very best of the millennium’: Longitudinal research and the demand-control-(support) model. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 8, 282–305.Google Scholar
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The ‘what’ and the ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.Google Scholar
Demerouti, E. (2006). Job characteristics, flow, and performance: The moderating role of conscientiousness. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11, 266–280.Google Scholar
Dienstbier, R.A. (1989). Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health. Psychological Review, 96, 84–100.Google Scholar
Dietrich, A. (2004). Neurocognitive mechanisms underlying the experience of flow. Consciousness and Cognition, 13, 746–761.Google Scholar
Dijksterhuis, A., & Nordgren, L.F. (2006). A theory of unconscious thought. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 95–180.Google Scholar
Dijksterhuis, A. (2004). Think different: The merits of unconscious thought in preference development and decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 586–598.Google Scholar
Dijksterhuis, A., & van Olden, Z. (2006). On the benefits of thinking unconsciously: Unconscious thought can increase post-choice satisfaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 627–631.Google Scholar
Duman, R.S., & Monteggia, L.M.A. (2006). Neurotrophic model for stress-related mood disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 59, 1116–1127.Google Scholar
Dweck, C.S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Dweck, C., Chui, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories: Elaboration and extension of the model. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 322–333.Google Scholar
Eisenberger, R., Armeli, S., Rexwinkel, B., Lynch, P.D., & Rhoades, L. (2001). Reciprocation of perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 42–51.Google Scholar
Eisenberger, R., Fasolo, P., & Davis-LaMastro, V. (1990). Perceived organizational support and employee diligence, commitment, and innovation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 51–59.Google Scholar
Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 500–507.Google Scholar
Eisenberger, R., Stinglhamber, F., Vandenberghe, C., Sucharski, I., & Rhoades, L. (2002). Perceived supervisor support: contributions to perceived organizational support and employee retention. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 565–573.Google Scholar
Eriksson, P.S., & Wallin, L. (2004). Functional consequences of stress-related suppression of adult hippocampal neurogenesis — a novel hypothesis on the neurobiology of burnout. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 110, 275–280.Google Scholar
Fisher, A.T., Sonn, C.C., & Bishop, B. (Eds.). (2002). Psychological sense of community: Research, applications, and implications. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Fong, C.T. (2006). The effects of emotional ambivalence on creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 1016–1030.Google Scholar
Frank, R.H. (1995). The winner-take-all-society. How more and more Americans complete for ever fewer and bigger prizes, encouraging economic waste, income inequality, and impoverished cultural life. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Galak, J., Redden, J.P., & Kruger, J. (2009). Variety amnesia: Recalling past variety can accelerate recovery from satiation. Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 575–584.Google Scholar
Gawronski, B., Bodenhausen, G.V., & Becker, A. P. (2007). I like it, because I like myself: Associative self-anchoring and post-decisional change of implicit evaluations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 221–232.Google Scholar
Gerstner, C.R., & Day, D.V. (1997). Meta-analytic review of leader–member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 827–844.Google Scholar
Grant, A.M., & Sonnetag, S. (2010). Doing good buffers against feeling bad: Prosocial impact compensates for negative task self-evaluations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 111, 13–22.Google Scholar
Greenglass, E.R., & Burke, R.J. (1990). Burnout over time. Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration, 13, 192–204.Google Scholar
Gromet, D.M., & Pronin, E. (2009). What were you worried about? Actors’ concerns about revealing fears and insecurities relative to observers’ reactions. Self & Identity, 8, 342–364.Google Scholar
Hallberg, U., & Schaufeli, W.B. (2006). ‘Same same’ but different? Can work engagement be discriminated from job involvement and organizational commitment? European Psychologist, 11, 119–127.Google Scholar
Harrison, B. (1994). The dark side of flexible production. Technology Review, 97, 38–45.Google Scholar
Hayes, S.C., Strosahl, K.D., & Wilson, K.G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hemingway, C.A. (2005). Personal values as a catalyst for corporate social entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Ethics, 60, 233–249.Google Scholar
Higgins, E.T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319–340.Google Scholar
Higgins, E.T. (1999). When do self-discrepancies have specific relations to emotions? The second-generation question of Tangney, Niedenthal, Covert, and Barlow (1998). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1313–1317.Google Scholar
Hirt, E.R., Devers, E.E., & McCrea, S.M. (2008). I want to be creative: Exploring the role of hedonic contingency theory in the positive mood-cognitive flexibility link. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 214–230.Google Scholar
Hodgkinson, G.P., Langan-Fox, J., & Sadler-Smith, E. (2008). Intuition: A fundamental bridging construct in the behavioural sciences. British Journal of Psychology, 99, 1–27.Google Scholar
Hrdy, S.B. (1999). Mother nature: Maternal instincts and how they shape the human species. New York: Ballantine Books.Google Scholar
Huang, X., Iun, J., Liu, A., & Gong, Y. (2010). Does participative leadership enhance work performance by inducing empowerment or trust? The differential effects on managerial and non-managerial subordinates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 122–143.Google Scholar
Kahn, W.A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 692–724.Google Scholar
Karasek, R., & Theorell, T. (1990). Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kazen, M., & Kuhl, J. (2005). Intention memory and achievement motivation: Volitional facilitation and inhibition as a function of affective contents of need-related stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 426–448.Google Scholar
Kirby, L.D., & Wright, R.A. (2003). Cardiovascular correlates of challenge and threat appraisals: A critical examination of the Biopsychosocial Analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 216–233.Google Scholar
Koberg, C.S., Boss, R.W., Senjem, J.C., & Goodman, E.A. (1999). Antecedents and outcomes of empowerment: Empirical evidence from the health care industry. Group and Organization Management, 24, 71–91.Google Scholar
Koole, S.L., & Coenen, L.H. (2007). Implicit self and affect regulation: Effects of action orientation and subliminal self priming in an affective priming task. Self and Identity, 6, 118–136.Google Scholar
Kraus, M.W., Piff, P.K., & Keltner, D. (2009). Social class, sense of control, and social explanation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 992–1004.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J. (2000). A functional-design approach to motivation and volition: The dynamics of personality systems interactions. In Boekaerts, M.Pintrich, P.R. & Zeidner, M. (Eds.), Self-regulation: Directions and challenges for future research (pp. 111–169). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Lakonishok, J., Shleifer, A., & Vishny, R.W. (1991). Do institutional investors destabilize stock prices: Evidence on herding and feedback trading. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.Google Scholar
Lambert, E.G., Hogan, N.L., Jiang, S., Elechi, O., Oko, B., Barbaranne, M., . . . Dupuy, P. (2010). The relationship among distributive and procedural justice and correctional life satisfaction, burnout, and turnover intent: An exploratory study. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 7–16.Google Scholar
Lasalvia, A., Bonetto, C., Bertani, M., Bissoli, S., Cristofalo, D., & Marrella, G. (2009). Influence of perceived organisational factors on job burnout: Survey of community mental health staff. British Journal of Psychiatry, 195, 537–544.Google Scholar
Laurenz, M., Semmer, N.K., Elfering, A., & Jacobshagen, N. (2008). The double meaning of control: Three-way interactions between internal resources, job control, and stressors at work. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13, 244–258.Google Scholar
Lawler, E.E. (2005). Creating high performance organizations. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 43, 10–17.Google Scholar
Lee, L., Amir, O., & Ariely, D. (2009). In search of homo economicus: Cognitive noise and the role of emotion in preference consistency. Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 173–187.Google Scholar
Lee, R.T., & Ashforth, B.E. (1993). A longitudinal study of burnout among supervisors and managers: Comparisons between the Leiter and Maslach (1988) and Golembiewski et al. (1986) models. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 54, 369–398.Google Scholar
Leiter, M.P. (2005). Perception of risk: An organizational model of burnout, stress symptoms, and occupational risk. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 18, 131–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leiter, M.P., & Maslach, C. (2000). Burnout and health. In Baum, A.Revenson, T. & Singer, J. (Eds.), Handbook of health psychology (pp. 415–426). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Leiter, M.P., & Maslach, C. (2004). Areas of worklife: A structured approach to organizational predictors of job burnout. In Perrewé, P. & Ganster, D.C. (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well being (Vol. 3, pp. 91–134). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Leventhal, G.S. (1980). What should be done with equity theory? New approaches to the study of fairness in social relationships. In Gergen, K.J.Greenberg, M.S. & , R.H. Willis (Eds.), Social exchange: Advances on theory and research (pp. 27–54). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Liden, R., Wayne, S.J., & Stilwell, D. (1993). A longitudinal study on the early development of leader–member exchanges. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 662–674.Google Scholar
Lind, E.A., Kanfer, R., & Earley, P.C. (1990). Voice, control, and procedural justice: Instrumental and noninstrumental concerns in fairness judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 952–959.Google Scholar
Marja, H., Kinnunen, U., Pekkonen, M., & Raija, K. (2007). Comparing two burnout interventions: Perceived job control mediates decreases in burnout. International Journal of Stress Management, 14, 227–248.Google Scholar
Maslach, C. (1993). Burnout: A multidimensional perspective. In Schaufeli, W.B.Maslach, C. & Marek, T. (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 19–32). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Maslach, C., Jackson, S.E., & Leiter, M.P. (1996). Maslach Burnout Inventory manual (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Google Scholar
Maslach, C., & Leiter, M.P. (1997). The truth about burnout. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.Google Scholar
Maslach, C., & Leiter, M.P. (2008). Early predictors of job burnout and engagement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 498–512.Google Scholar
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W.B., & Leiter, M.P. (2001). Job burnout. In Fiske, S.T.Schacter, D.L. & Zahn-Waxler, C. (Eds.), Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397–422.Google Scholar
Mason, E.S., & Asher, R.E. (1973). The World Bank since Bretton Woods. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
May, D.R., Gilson, R.L., & Harter, L.M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 11–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. (2003). Mood disorders and allostatic load. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 200–207.Google Scholar
Meijman, T.F., & Mulder, G. (1998). Psychological aspects of workload. In Drenth, P.J.D. & Thierry, H. (Ed.), Handbook of work and organizational psychology. Vol. 2: Work psychology (pp. 5–33). Hove, UK: Psychology.Google Scholar
Mills, C.W. (1951). White collar: The American middle classes. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mojza, E.J., & Sonnentag, S. (2010). Does volunteer work during leisure time buffer negative effects of job stressors? A diary study. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 19, 231–252.Google Scholar
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). The concept of flow. In Snyder, C.R. & Lopez, S.J. (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 89–105). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Neff, K.D. (2003). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2, 85–102.Google Scholar
Oliver, R.L., & Anderson, E. (1994). An empirical test of the consequences of behavior- and outcome-based sales control systems. Journal of Marketing, 58, 53–67.Google Scholar
Pratt, M.G. (2000). The good, the bad, and the ambivalent: Managing identification among Amway distributors. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45, 456–493.Google Scholar
Quinn, R.E., & Spreitzer, G.M. (1997). The road to empowerment: Seven questions every leader should consider. Organizational Dynamics, 26, 37–49.Google Scholar
Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 698–714Google Scholar
Robins, R.W., & Pals, J.L. (2002). Implicit self-theories in the academic domain: Implications for goal orientation, attributions, affect, and self-esteem change. Self and Identity, 1, 313–336.Google Scholar
Robinson, B.E., Flowers, C., & Carroll, J. (2001). Work stress and marriage: A theoretical model examining the relationship between workaholism and marital cohesion. International Journal of Stress Management, 8, 165–175.Google Scholar
Sassen, S. (1998). The mobility of labor and capital: A study in international investment and labor flow. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schaufeli, W.B., Bakker, A.B., van der Heijden, F.M., & Prins, J.T. (2009). Workaholism, burnout and well-being among junior doctors: The mediating role of role conflict. Work & Stress, 23, 155–172.Google Scholar
Schlegel, R.J., Hicks, J.A., Arndt, J., & King, L.A. (2009). Thine own self: True self-concept accessibility and meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 473–490.Google Scholar
Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. (1983). Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 513–523.Google Scholar
Sennett, R. (1998). The corrosion of character. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Sennett, R. (2006). The culture of the new capitalism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sertoza, O.O., Binbayb, I.T., Koyluc, E., Noyand, A., Yildirim, E., & Metef, H.E. (2008). The role of BDNF and HPA axis in the neurobiology of burnout syndrome. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 32, 1459–1465.Google Scholar
Sluiter, J.K., Frings-Dresen, M.H.W., Meijman, T.F., & van der Beek, A.J. (2000). Reactivity and recovery from different types of work measured by chatecholamines and cortisol: A systematic literature overview. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57, 298–315.Google Scholar
Soros, G. (1998). The crisis of global capitalism: Open society endangered. New York: BBS.Google Scholar
Spreitzer, G.M. (1995). Individual empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 1442–1465.Google Scholar
Spreitzer, G.M. (1996). Social structural characteristics of psychological empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 483–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, K.W., & Velthouse, B.A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An ‘interpretive’ model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15, 666–681.Google Scholar
Tice, D.M., Baumeister, R.F., Shmueli, D., & Muraven, M. (2007). Restoring the self: Positive affect helps improve self-regulation following ego depletion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 379–384.Google Scholar
Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 63–72.Google Scholar
Twenge, J.M., & Campbell, S.M. (2008). Generational differences in psychological traits and their ipact on the workplace. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23, 862–877.Google Scholar
Uysal, A., Lin, H.L., & Knee, C.R. (2010). The role of need satisfaction in self-concealment and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 187–199.Google Scholar
Van Boven, L., & Gilovich, T. (2003). To do or to have? That is the question. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 1193–1202.Google Scholar
Van den Bos, K., & Lind, E.A. (2002). Uncertainty management by means of fairness judgments. In Zanna, M.P. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 1–60). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
van Prooijen, J. (2009). Procedural justice as autonomy regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 1166–1180.Google Scholar
Van Yperen, N.W., & Janssen, O. (2002). Fatigued and dissatisfied or fatigued but satisfied? Goal orientations and responses to high job demands. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 1161–1171.Google Scholar
Van Yperen, N.W., van den Berg, A.E., & Willering, M.C. (1999). Towards a better understanding of the link between participation in decision-making and organizational citizenship behavior: A multilevel analysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72, 377–392.Google Scholar
Wang, Q., Bowling, N.A., & Eschleman, K.J. (2010). A meta-analytic examination of work and general locus of control. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 761–768.Google Scholar
Waters, H.S., & Waters, E. (2006). The attachment working models concept: Among other things, we build script-like representations of secure base experiences. Attachment & Human Development, 8, 185–198.Google Scholar
Weber, M. (2001). The protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. London: Routledge.Google Scholar