Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T18:37:53.903Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Suspended Execution beyond China’s Borders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 September 2021

Tobias Smith*
Affiliation:
Wilson Center
Daniel Pascoe
Affiliation:
School of Law, City University of Hong Kong
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Although China remains the world’s most prolific death-penalty jurisdiction, it has also reportedly reduced executions in the twenty-first century. China achieved this reduction in part through the use of a nominal capital sentence called “suspended execution.” The success of suspended execution as a diversionary tool has produced calls for its introduction elsewhere. However, there has been no empirical research on suspended execution outside China. This article fills this gap by identifying neighbouring countries where suspended-execution proposals have been considered, determining why these countries considered it, and examining how proposals were structured. We identify four Asian jurisdictions—Taiwan, Japan, Vietnam, and Indonesia. We find that all of these countries looked to China for inspiration; each did so independently and for reasons unrelated to China’s death-penalty reforms. Our findings provide insights about capital punishment in Asia, the appeal of suspended execution, and the role of China in regional penal practice.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Asian Journal of Law and Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Academia Sinica (2007) “A Study on the Abolition of the Death Penalty and Its Alternatives,” https://www.moj.gov.tw/cp-143-61799-d4adf-001.html (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Akbari, Anugerah Rizki (2019) “Indonesians Better Get Ready for Jail, as Flawed New Criminal Code Looks Set to Pass,” Indonesia at Melbourne, 3 September, https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/indonesians-better-get-ready-for-jail-as-flawed-new-criminal-code-looks-set-to-pass/?fbclid=IwAR2gKCLw1z1pjHJh8U5BGe_ZO9KAqRdfagwkddOG8AaKpy6sXzumFsEzMX8 (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Alford, Peter (2015) “Joko Sits on Law to Restrict Execution,” The Australian, 7 May.Google Scholar
Aliansi Nasional Reformasi KUHP (2015) Hukuman Mati Dalam R KUHP 2015. Jakarta: Institute for Criminal Justice Reform.Google Scholar
Ambler, Leah (2008) “The People Decide: The Effect of the Introduction of the Quasi-Jury System (Saiban-In Seido) on the Death Penalty in Japan.” 6(1) Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights, https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1064&context=njihr (accessed 5 January 2021).Google Scholar
Amnesty International (2017) “China’s Deadly Secrets,” https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa17/5849/2017/en/ (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Amnesty International (2019) “Death Sentences and Executions: 2018,” https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/act50/9870/2019/en/ (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Anya, Agnes (2019) “15 Foreigners among 48 Handed Death Penalty in Indonesia Last Year: Amnesty,” The Jakarta Post, 11 April, https://www.thejakartapost.com/seasia/2019/04/11/15-foreigners-among-48-handed-death-penalty-last-year-amnesty.html. (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Arba’i, Yon Artiono (2012) Aku Menolak Hukuman Mati. Jakarta: Perpustakaan Populer Gramedia.Google Scholar
Arief, Barda Nawawi (2008) Bunga Rampai: Kebijakan Hukum Pidana: Perkembangan Penyusunan Konsep KUHP Baru, 2nd edn. Jakarta: Kencana.Google Scholar
Aritonang, Margareth S. (2017) “Indonesia Refuses to Implement Moratorium on Death Penalty,” The Jakarta Post, 12 April.Google Scholar
Asmarawati, Tina (2013) Hukuman Mati dan Permasalahannya di Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Deepublish.Google Scholar
Asshiddiqie, Jimly S. H. (2015) “Islam, Democracy and the Future of the Death Penalty,” https://law.unimelb.edu.au/centres/alc/research/publications/alc-briefing-paper-series/islam,-democracy-and-the-future-of-the-death-penalty (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Badan Pembinaan Hukum Nasional (2015) Draft Naskah Akademik Rancangan Undang-Undang Tentang Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Pidana (KUHP). Jakarta: Kementerian Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia.Google Scholar
Bae, Sangmin (2016) “The Abolitionist Movement in Death Penalty-Friendly Asia: The Cases of South Korea and Taiwan,” in Yorke, Jon, ed., Against the Death Penalty: International Initiatives and Implications, Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bernie, Mohammad (2019) “RKUHP Buktikan Indonesia Tak Punya Komitmen Hapus Hukuman Mati,” Tirto, 20 September, https://tirto.id/rkuhp-buktikan-indonesia-tak-punya-komitmen-hapus-hukuman-mati-eiqj (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Berrih, Carole, & KontraS (2019) Dehumanized: The Prison Conditions of People Sentenced to Death in Indonesia. Paris: ECPM.Google Scholar
Bignami, Francesca (2016) “A New Field: Comparative Law and Regulation,” in Bignami, F. & Zaring, D., eds., Comparative Law and Regulation: Understanding the Global Regulatory Process, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bodde, Derk, & Clarence, Morris (1967) Law in Imperial China: Exemplified by 190 Ch’ing Dynasty Cases (Translated from the “Hsing-an Hui-Lan”), Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budiman, Adhigama A., Ajeng Gandini, Kamilah, Napitupulu, Erasmus A. T., et al. (2017) Overcoming the Execution in Limbo: Review on the Death Penalty Policy in Indonesia in 2017, Jakarta: Institute for Criminal Justice Reform.Google Scholar
Butt, Simon, & Tim, Lindsey (2018) Indonesian Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, Rich (2006) “Nation Keeps Death Penalty, but Reduces Executions,” Taipei Times, 2 January, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2006/01/02/2003287050 (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Chiu, H.-Y., & Hood, R. (2019) “For or Against Abolition of the Death Penalty: Evidence from Taiwan,” The Death Penalty Project, https://www.deathpenaltyproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Taiwan-Public-Opinion-FINAL-ENG.pdf (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Cornell Center on the Death Penalty Worldwide (2020a) “Death Penalty Database: Taiwan,” Death Penalty Worldwide, https://dpw.pointjupiter.co/country-search-post.cfm?country=Taiwan (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Cornell Center on the Death Penalty Worldwide (2020b) “Death Penalty Database: Vietnam,” Death Penalty Worldwide, https://dpw.pointjupiter.co/country-search-post.cfm?country=Vietnam#a16-3 (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Datviet (2015a) “Proposal to Reduce the Death Penalty, Corruption Is Paid Instead,” Datviet, 18 April, https://baodatviet.vn/chinh-tri-xa-hoi/tin-tuc-thoi-su/de-xuat-giam-an-tu-hinhtham-nhung-duoc-nop-tien-thay-the-3243498/ (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Datviet (2015b) “Proposal to Reduce the Death Penalty, Corruption Is Paid Replacement Money,” Datviet, 18 April, https://baodatviet.vn/chinh-tri-xa-hoi/tin-tuc-thoi-su/de-xuat-giam-an-tu-hinhtham-nhung-duoc-nop-tien-thay-the-3243498/ (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
DeAeth, Duncan (2018) “Tsai Administration Criticized for Taiwan’s 1st Execution since 2016,” Taiwan News, 4 September, https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3522121 (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Death Penalty Project (2014) “The Death Penalty in Taiwan,” https://www.deathpenaltyproject.org/knowledge/the-death-penalty-in-taiwan/ (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Dikötter, Frank (2002) Crime, Punishment, and the Prison in Modern China, New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
DKN (2015) “Should the Death Penalty be Removed for International Integration?” DKN.tv, 28 May, https://mb.dkn.tv/thoi-su/co-nen-bo-an-tu-hinh-de-hoi-nhap-quoc-te.html (accessed 24 March 2021).Google Scholar
Dobbin, Frank, Beth, Simmons, & Geoffrey, Garrett (2007) “The Global Diffusion of Public Policies: Social Construction, Coercion, Competition, or Learning?” 33 Annual Review of Sociology 449–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobinson, Ian (2002) “The Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China (1997): Real Change or Rhetoric?” 11 Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal 162.Google Scholar
Dui Hua Foundation, The (2020) “Death Penalty Reform,” https://duihua.org/resources/death-penalty-reform/ (accessed 17 December 2020).Google Scholar
Eddyono, Supriyadi W., Zainal, Abidin, Arsil, et al. (2015a) “Brief Notes on the Proposed Discussion of 2015 Criminal Code Bill,” ELSAM, 26 March, https://elsam.or.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Brief-Notes-on-the-Proposed-Discussion-of-2015-Criminal-Code-Bill.pdf (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Eddyono, Supriyadi W., Napitupulu, Erasmus A. T., & Ajeng Gandini, Kamilah (2015b) “Hukuman Mati Dalam R KUHP: Jalan Tengah yang Meragukan,” https://web.archive.org/web/20191101084951/http://icjr.or.id/data/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Hukuman-Mati-dalam-RKUHP.pdf (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Elkins, Zachary, & Beth, Simmons (2005) “On Waves, Clusters, and Diffusion: A Conceptual Framework.” 598 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 3351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, David John, Camp, Bayliss J., & Boutcher, Steven A. (2010) “Worldwide Trends in the Criminal Regulation of Sex, 1945 to 2005.” 75 American Sociological Review 867–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garland, David (2010) Peculiar Institution: America’s Death Penalty in an Age of Abolition, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Garrett, Brandon L. (2017) End of Its Rope: How Killing the Death Penalty Can Revive Criminal Justice, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrett, Brandon L. (2019) “Innocence and the Global Death Penalty,” in Steiker, C. & Steiker, J., eds., Comparative Capital Punishment, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Gillespie, John, & Chen, Albert H. Y. (2010) “Comparing Legal Development in China and Vietnam: An Introduction,” in Gillespie, J. and Chen, A., eds., Legal Reforms in China and Vietnam: A Comparison of Asian Communist Regimes, London: Routledge, 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grattet, Ryken, Valerie, Jenness, & Curry, Theodore R. (1998) “The Homogenization and Differentiation of Hate Crime Law in the United States, 1978 to 1995: Innovation and Diffusion in the Criminalization of Bigotry.” 63 American Sociological Review 286307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halim, David (2019) “Komnas HAM Usul Terpidana Mati yang Telah Jalani Hukuman 10 Tahun Dievaluasi,” Kompas, 17 January, https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2019/01/17/10511841/komnas-ham-usul-terpidana-mati-yang-telah-jalani-hukuman-10-tahun-dievaluasi (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Hariyono, Bambang (2009) “Kebijakan Formulasi Sanksi Pidana Terhadap Pelaku Tindak Pidana Narkoba di Indonesia.Master diss., Diponegoro University.Google Scholar
He, Xianbing (2008) Sixing de shiyong jiqi jiazhi quxiang [The Application and Value of the Death Penalty], Beijing: Gongan daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar
Hirano, Ryuichi (1973) “The Draft of the Revised Penal Code: A General Critique.6 Law Japan 4964.Google Scholar
Hoang, Chi Bao (2017) “‘Separation of Powers’ Is Not the Model of Choice for the State of Vietnam,” National Defence Journal, 22 September, http://tapchiqptd.vn/en/research-and-discussion/separation-of-powers-is-not-the-model-of-choice-for-the-state-of-vietnam/10603.html (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Hong, Daode (2009) “Teshe huibuhui lai? [Will Amnesty ever Arrive?].” 21 Government Legality 12–12.Google Scholar
Hood, Roger, & Surya, Deva, eds. (2013) Confronting Capital Punishment in Asia: Human Rights, Politics and Public Opinion, Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hood, Roger, & Carolyn, Hoyle (2009) The Death Penalty: A Worldwide Perspective, 4th edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hood, Roger, & Carolyn, Hoyle (2015) The Death Penalty: A Worldwide Perspective, 5th edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hooker, M. Barry (1978) A Concise History of Southeast Asia, Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Hor, Michael (2013) “Singapore’s Death Penalty: The Beginning of the End?” in Hood, R. & Deva, S., eds., Confronting Capital Punishment in Asia: Human Rights, Politics and Public Opinion, Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hubert, Thomas (2013) “Death Penalty at the Heart of Human Rights Review,” World Coalition Against the Death Penalty, 5 February, http://www.worldcoalition.org/taiwan-death-penalty-human-rights-review-moj-covenants-watch-iccpr.html (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch (2019) “Indonesia: Draft Criminal Code Disastrous for Rights,” https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/18/indonesia-draft-criminal-code-disastrous-rights (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Imparsial (2010) Inveighing Against the Death Penalty in Indonesia, Jakarta: Imparsial.Google Scholar
Institute for Criminal Justice Reform (2018) “ICJR: Government of Indonesia Should Consistently Promote ‘Win-Win Solution’ Regarding the Provisions of Death Penalty in the Penal Code Bill (RKUHP),” https://icjr.or.id/icjr-government-of-indonesia-should-consistently-promote-win-win-solution-regarding-the-provisions-of-death-penalty-in-the-penal-code-bill-rkuhp/ (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
International Federation for Human Rights (2008) “The Death Penalty in Japan: The Law of Silence,” https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CCPR/Shared%20Documents/JPN/INT_CCPR_NGO_JPN_94_9324_E.pdf (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Johnson, David T. (2019) “A Factful Perspective on Capital Punishment.” 11 Journal of Human Rights Practice 334–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, David T. (2020) The Culture of Capital Punishment in Japan, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, David T., & Zimring, Franklin E. (2009a) “Death Penalty Lessons from Asia.7 The Asia-Pacific Journal 128.Google Scholar
Johnson, David T., & Zimring, Franklin E. (2009b) The Next Frontier: National Development, Political Change, and the Death Penalty in Asia, New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jou, Susyan, & Bill, Hebenton (2019) “Support for the Death Penalty in Taiwan? A Study of Value Conflict and Ambivalence.” 15 Asian Journal of Criminology 163–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Chin, & Garcia, Gary D. (1989) “Capital Punishment in the United States and Japan: Constitutionality, Justification and Methods of Infliction.” 11 Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Journal 253–79.Google Scholar
Kim, Soo-Am (2006) The North Korean Penal Code, Criminal Procedures, and Their Actual Applications, Seoul: Korea Institute for National Unification.Google Scholar
Kiroku, Hanai (2003) “Diet Group Takes Uneasy Steps toward Abolishing Death Penalty,” The Japan Times, 23 June.Google Scholar
KontraS (2018) “A Moratorium on the Death Penalty Should Be a Priority for the Government of Indonesia,” KontraS, 14 May, https://kontras.org/2018/05/14/a-moratorium-on-the-death-penalty-should-be-a-priority-for-the-government-of-indonesia/ (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Ku, Samuel C. Y. (2002) “Indonesia’s Relations with China and Taiwan: From Politics to Economics.” 26 Asia Perspective 227–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lalu, Nikson Gans (2015) “Pidana Mati dan Hak Asasi Manusia.” 1 Jurnal Hukum tô-râ 57–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Rachel F. F. (1993) “Capital Punishment Issue Heats Up in Taiwan Society,” The Free China Journal, 27 April.Google Scholar
Liao, Fort Fu-Te (2008) “From Seventy-Eight to Zero: Why Executions Declined after Taiwan’s Democratization.” 10 Punishment & Society 153–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liao, Fort Fu-Te (2010) “The Abolition of the Death Penalty in Taiwan: Why a De Facto Moratorium Was Established and Lost.” 11 Asia-Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law 122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liao, Fort Fu-Te (2014) “Why Taiwan’s De Facto Moratorium Was Established and Lost,” in Lill Scherdin, ed., Capital Punishment: A Hazard to a Sustainable Criminal Justice System, Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 175–94.Google Scholar
Liebman, Benjamin L., Margaret, Roberts, Stern, Racheal E., et al. (2019) “Mass Digitization of Chinese Court Decisions: How to Use Text as Data in the Field of Chinese Law,” https://ssrn.com/abstract=2985861 (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Lindsey, Tim, & Pip, Nicholson (2016) Drugs Law and Legal Practice in Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Singapore and Vietnam, Bloomsbury: Bloomsbury Publishing.Google Scholar
Lubman, Stanley B. (1999) Bird in a Cage: Legal Reform in China after Mao, Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Luong, Hai Thanh (2014) “The Application of the Death Penalty for Drug-Related Crimes in Vietnam: Law, Policy, and Practice.” 17 Thailand Journal of Law and Policy, http://thailawforum.com/articles/Vietnam-death-penalty.html (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Macaulay, Fiona (2013) “Modes of Prison Administration, Control and Governmentality in Latin America: Adoption, Adaptation and Hybridity.” 13 Conflict, Security & Development 361–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, Tim (2015) “Missing History? Jimly Asshiddiqie on the Death Penalty in Indonesia,” Indonesia at Melbourne, 11 August, https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/missing-history-jimly-asshiddiqie-on-the-death-penalty-in-indonesia/ (accessed 24 March 2021).Google Scholar
Mao, Zedong (1951) “‘Directive’ Strike Surely, Accurately and Relentlessly in Suppressing Counterrevolutionaries,” https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-5/mswv5_14.htm (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Maxon, Ann (2019) “Association Pans Planned Combined Judicial System,” Taipei Times, 20 March, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2019/03/20/2003711828 (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
McGregor, Katherine, Jess, Melvin, & Annie, Pohlman (2018) “New Interpretations of the Causes, Dynamics and Legacies of the Indonesian Genocide,” in K. McGregor, J. Melvin, & A. Pohlman, eds., The Indonesian Genocide of 1965: Causes: Dynamics and Legacies, London: Palgrave.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McRae, Dave (2012) “A Key Domino? Indonesia’s Death Penalty Politics,” https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/key-domino-indonesia-death-penalty-politics (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
McRae, Dave (2017) “Indonesian Capital Punishment in Comparative Perspective.” 173 Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McRae, Dave (2018) “Talking Indonesia: A New Criminal Code,” Indonesia at Melbourne, 15 March, http://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/talking-indonesia-a-new-criminal-code/ (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Mehr, Nathaniel (2009) Constructive Bloodbath” in Indonesia: The United States, Britain and the Mass Killings of 1965–66, Nottingham: Spokesman Books.Google Scholar
Melvin, Jess, & Annie, Pohlman (2018) “A Case for Genocide: Indonesia, 1965–1966,” in McGregor, K., Melvin, J., & Pohlman, A., eds., The Indonesian Genocide of 1965: Causes: Dynamics and Legacies, London: Palgrave, 2747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Métraux, Daniel A. (2009) “The Nagayama Criteria for Assessing the Death Penalty in Japan: Reflections of a Case Suspect.” 31 Southeast Review of Asian Studies 282.Google Scholar
Miao, Michelle (2013) “Examining China’s Responses to the Global Campaign against the Death Penalty,” in Hood, R. & Deva, S., eds., Confronting Capital Punishment in Asia: Human Rights, Politics and Public Opinion, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 4667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miao, Michelle (2016) “Two Years Between Life and Death: A Critical Analysis of the Suspended Death Penalty in China.” 45 International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 2643.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minzner, Carl F. (2018) End of an Era: How China’s Authoritarian Revival Is Undermining Its Rise, New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Muladi, (1995) Hak Asasi Manusia, Politik dan Sistem Peradilan Pidana, Semarang: Badan Penerbit Universitas Diponegoro.Google Scholar
Muladi, (ed.) (2003) Pengkajian hukum tentang asas-asas pidana Indonesia dalam perkembangan masyarakat masa kini dan mendatang, Jakarta: Ministry of Justice and Human Rights, Republic of Indonesia.Google Scholar
Nadlir, M. (2017) “RUU KUHP Disahkan Januari 2018, Hukuman Mati Tak Dihapus,” Kompas, 19 December, https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2017/12/19/21265411/ruu-kuhp-disahkan-januari-2018-hukuman-mati-tak-dihapus (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Napitupulu, Eramus A. T., Genoveva Alicia, K. S. Maya, Iftitahsari, et al. (2018) “Perpetuating Lies: 2018 Indonesian Death Penalty Report,” http://icjr.or.id/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018-Indonesian-Death-Penalty-Report-Perpetuating-Lies.pdf (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Napitupulu, Eramus A. T., Genoveva Alicia K. S. Maya, Iftitahsari, et al. (2019) “A Game of Fate: Report on Indonesia Death Penalty Policy in 2019,” https://icjr.or.id/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/A-Game-of-Fate.pdf (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Nguyen, Trang Mae (2019) “In Search of Judicial Legitimacy: Criminal Sentencing in Vietnamese Courts.” 32 Harvard Human Rights Journal 147–88.Google Scholar
Nicholson, David (2009) Environmental Dispute Resolution in Indonesia, Leiden: KITLV Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Novak, Andrew (2014) The Global Decline of the Mandatory Death Penalty, Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Novak, Andrew (2015) Comparative Executive Clemency: The Constitutional Pardon Power and the Prerogative of Mercy in Global Perspective, Abingdon: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obara-Minnitt, Mika (2016) Japanese Moratorium on the Death Penalty, London: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pascoe, Daniel (2016) “Explaining Death Penalty Clemency in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.10 Vienna Journal on International Constitutional Law 165–98.Google Scholar
Pascoe, Daniel (2017) “Singapore and Thailand: Explaining Differences in Death Penalty Clemency,” in Lu, J., Travers, M., & Chang, L., eds., Comparative Criminology in Asia, Berlin: Springer.Google Scholar
Pascoe, Daniel (2019a) Last Chance for Life: Clemency in Southeast Asian Death Penalty Cases, Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pascoe, Daniel (2019b) “Su’ud Rusli’s Constitutional Court Challenge: Overhauling Clemency in Indonesian Death Penalty Cases?19 Australian Journal of Asian Law 118.Google Scholar
Pascoe, Daniel (2019c) “Towards a Global Theory of Capital Clemency Incidence,” in Steiker, C. & Steiker, J., eds., Comparative Capital Punishment Law, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Pascoe, Daniel, & Michelle, Miao (2017) “Victim-Perpetrator Reconciliation Agreements in Murder Cases: What Can Muslim-Majority Jurisdictions and the PRC Learn from Each Other?” 66 International & Comparative Law Quarterly 963–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pascoe, Daniel, & Andrew, Novak (2020) “Deadly Justice Without Mercy in East Asia?” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice (forthcoming), https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01924036.2020.1824873 (accessed 12 April 2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peerenboom, Randall (2002) China’s Long March Toward Rule of Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Qian, Yijang Karina (2009) “The Institutionalization of Democratic Civil Society in Taiwan: A Case Study of NGOs Working on the Hsi-Chih Trio Case.” 49 Asian Survey 716–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quigley, John (1988) “Vietnam at the Legal Crossroads Adopts a Penal Code.” 36 American Journal of Comparative Law 351–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rajah, Jothie (2012) Authoritarian Rule of Law: Legislation, Discourse and Legitimacy in Singapore, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reksodiputro, Mardjono (2007) Pembaharuan Hukum Pidana, Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia.Google Scholar
Rubin, Ashley T. (2015) “A Neo-Institutional Account of Prison Diffusion.” 49 Law & Society Review 365400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sahid, K. (2014) “Pemberian Grasi Menurut Perundang-Undangan di Indonesia.” Diss., Sunan Ampel State Islamic University, Surabaya.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Petra (2002) Capital Punishment in Japan, Boston: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seet, Matthew (2017) “Finding Reprieve: Should the Global Movement against Capital Punishment Embrace China’s Suspended Death Sentence as a Model for Other Retentionist States to Emulate?” 16 Chinese Journal of International Law 453–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shikita, Minoru, & Shinichi, Tsuchiya (1992) Crime and Criminal Policy in Japan: Analysis and Evaluation of the Showa Era, 1926–1988, New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siems, Mathias (2014) Comparative Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Simmons, Beth A., & Elkins, Zachary (2004) “The Globalization of Liberalization: Policy Diffusion in the International Political Economy.” 98 American Political Science Review 171–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Tobias (2020) “Body Count Politics: Quantification, Secrecy and Capital Punishment in China.” 45 Law and Social Inquiry 706–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Tobias, & Su, Jiang (2019) “Making Sense of Life without Parole in China.” 21 Punishment & Society 7088.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Storey, Ian James (2000) “Indonesia’s China Policy in the New Order and Beyond: Problems and Prospects.” 22 Contemporary Southeast Asia 145–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Su, Kai-Ping (2018) “Why the State Stops to Kill: The Death Penalty and the Rule of Law in Taiwan.” 23 Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law 110–34.Google Scholar
Sun, Jiahong (2007a) “Lun Xianxing Sihuan Zhidu yu Qingdai Sixing Jianhou zhi Butong [Discussing the Difference Between the Current Suspended Execution System and the Qing Dynasty Autumn Assizes].” 52 Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance and Economic 59–62.Google Scholar
Sun, Jiahong (2007b) Qingdai de Sixing Jianhou [Deferred Execution in the Qing Dynasty], Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Suripatty, Roximelsen, & Jeferson, Kameo (2018) “Towards a New Indonesian Criminal Law.” 6 International Journal of Advanced Research 366–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suroyo, Gayatri, & Agustinus Beo Da, Costa (2019) “Indonesia Postpones Vote on Bill Criminalizing Sex Outside Marriage,” Reuters, 20 September, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-politics-rights/indonesia-postpones-vote-on-bill-criminalizing-sex-outside-marriage-idUSKBN1W50Y3 (accessed 17 December 2020).Google Scholar
Susanto, Mei, & Ajie, Ramdan (2017) “Kebijakan Moderasi Pidana Mati.” 10 Jurnal Yudisial 193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, Yoshio (1971a) “The Making and Meetings of the Second Reference Case (Part 1).” 479 Juristo 128.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Yoshio (1971b) “The Making and Meetings of the Second Reference Case (Part 2).” 489 Juristo 117.Google Scholar
Tanner, Murray Scot (2000) “State Coercion and the Balance of Awe: The 1983–1986 ‘Stern Blows’ Anti-Crime Campaign.” 44 The China Journal 93125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanner, Murray Scot (2005) “Campaign-Style Policing in China and Its Critics,” in Bakken, B., ed., Crime, Punishment, and Policing in China, Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 171–88.Google Scholar
Tilemann, Hal (2016a) “Indonesia’s Long Wait for Its Own Criminal Code,” Indonesia at Melbourne, 10 November, https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/indonesias-long-wait-for-its-own-criminal-code/ (accessed 17 December 2020).Google Scholar
Tilemann, Hal (2016b) “Initiatives for Criminal Law Reform: Article 3.” Unpublished Paper, on file with the authors.Google Scholar
Tran, Kien, & Cong Giao, Vu (2019) “The Changing Nature of Death Penalty in Vietnam: A Historical and Legal Inquiry.” 9 Societies 128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trevaskes, Susan (2010) Policing Serious Crime in China: From “Strike Hard” to “Kill Fewer ,” London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Trevaskes, Susan (2012) The Death Penalty in Contemporary China, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trevaskes, Susan (2013a) “China’s Death Penalty, The Supreme People’s Court, the Suspended Death Sentence and the Politics of Penal Reform.” 53 British Journal of Criminology 482–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trevaskes, Susan (2013b) “Suspending Death in Chinese Capital Cases,” in Hood, R. & Deva, S., eds., Confronting Capital Punishment in Asia: Human Rights, Politics and Public Opinion, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 221–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trevaskes, Susan (2016) “From Killing Many to Killing Fewer,” in Liang, B. & Lu, H., eds., The Death Penalty in China: Policy, Practice, and Reform, New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 123–55.Google Scholar
Trevaskes, Susan (2019) “The Death Penalty and Human Rights in China,” in Biddulph, S. & Rosenzweig, J., eds., Handbook on Human Rights in China, Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing, 425–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
TT (2015a) “Can Money be Used to Escape the Death Penalty?” Tuoi Tre, 15 May, https://tuoitre.vn/co-the-dung-tien-de-thoat-an-tu-hinh-729878.htm (accessed 17 December 2020).Google Scholar
TT (2015b) “Keep or Remove the Death Penalty?” Tuoi Tre, 12 December, https://tuoitre.vn/giu-hay-bo-hinh-phat-tu-hinh-732785.htm (accessed 17 December 2020).Google Scholar
Uematsu, Tadashi (1964) “Trends of the Revision of the Penal Code in Japan.” 3 Hitotsubashi Journal of Law and Politics 115.Google Scholar
United Daily News (2005) “Sihuan zhi, fabu niyinji [Suspended Execution to be Introduced by Ministry of Law],” United Daily News, 31 December, https://www.taedp.org.tw/en/taxonomy/vocabulary3/14?page=36 (accessed 17 December 2020).Google Scholar
United Nations Secretariat (1981) “Sixth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders,” UN Doc A/CONF.87/14/Rev.1.Google Scholar
Vietnam Committee on Human Rights (2016) “The Death Penalty in Vietnam,” https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/2016_-_report_on_death_penalty_in_vietnam.pdf (accessed 17 December 2020).Google Scholar
Wacquant, Loïc (2009) Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity, Durham: Duke university Press.Google Scholar
Wang, Chris, & Loa Lok-sin (2013) “DPP Slams Government Over Executions,” Taipei Times, 10 January, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2013/01/10/2003552171 (accessed 14 December 2020).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wijaya, Callistasia Anggun (2016) “It’s Impossible for Indonesia to Abolish Death Penalty: Expert,” The Jakarta Post, 8 September, https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/09/08/its-impossible-for-indonesia-to-abolish-death-penalty-expert.html (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Womack, Brantly (2006) China and Vietnam: The Politics of Asymmetry, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xinhua (2019) “Nearly 6,000 Fugitives Return to China in Past Five Years,” http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019–06/27/c_138176328.htm (accessed 14 December 2020).Google Scholar
Xiong, Moulin (2016) “The Death Penalty after the Restoration of Centralized Review: An Empirical Study of Capital Sentencing,” in Bin, Liang & Hong, Lu, eds., The Death Penalty in China: Policy, Practice and Reform, New York: Columbia University Press, 214–46.Google Scholar
Xiong, Moulin (2020) “Executive Clemency in Capital Cases: Inadequate Laws and Inactive Practice in Contemporary China,” in Pascoe, D. & Novak, A., eds., Executive Clemency: Comparative and Empirical Perspectives, Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Yang, Kuisong (2008) “Reconsidering the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries.” 193 The China Quarterly 102–21.Google Scholar
Zeng, Huaqun (2004) “Promoting a New Bilateral Legal Framework for China-EU Economic Relations.” 3 Chinese Journal of International Law 189.Google Scholar
Zhang, Ning (2005) “The Debate Over the Death Penalty in Today’s China.” 81 China Perspectives 8596.Google Scholar
Zhang, Ning (2008) “The Political Origins of Death Penalty Exceptionalism Mao Zedong and the Practice of Capital Punishment in Contemporary China.” 10 Punishment & Society 117–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Zhengxin (2004) Zhongguo de Sihuan Zhidu de Lilun Yu Shijian [China’s Suspended Death Penalty System in Theory and Practice], Wuhan: Wuhan University Press.Google Scholar
Zhao, Zuojun (2005) “The Suspension-of-Execution System and Limiting the Application of the Death Sentence.” 36 Contemporary Chinese Thought 5376.Google Scholar
Zimring, Franklin, & David, Johnson (2012) “Public Opinion and Death Penalty Reform in the People’s Republic of China.” 3 City University of Hong Kong Law Review 189–96.Google Scholar
Zyl Smit, Dirk van, & Catherine Appleton (2016) Life Imprisonment and Human Rights, Bloomsbury: Bloomsbury Publishing.Google Scholar
Zyl Smit, Dirk van, & Catherine Appleton (2019) Life Imprisonment: A Global Human Rights Analysis, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Statutes

Constitution of Indonesia 1945 Google Scholar
Criminal Law of the PRC (1979)Google Scholar
Criminal Law of the PRC (1997)Google Scholar
Criminal Code of Vietnam (1985/2015)Google Scholar
Criminal Code of Indonesia (1915) (KUHP)Google Scholar
Revised Criminal Code of Indonesia (RKUHP)Google Scholar