Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T13:38:44.755Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Excuse of (Il)legality in Discriminating and Persecuting Religious Minorities: Anti-Mosque Legal Violence in Myanmar

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 August 2021

Nyi Nyi Kyaw
Nyi Nyi Kyaw*
Affiliation:
Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
*
E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article highlights the convenient excuse of (il)legality used by (1) religious majoritarian mobs to justify attacks against places of worship and religious buildings of minorities; and (2) police and local authorities to absolve themselves of the failure to uphold public order and the rule of law, protect religious minorities, and to punish religious minorities. This article traces the emergence of legal violence in the form of anti-mosque vigilante extremism in Myanmar from 2012 onwards and analyzes cases of attacks against: (1) “illegal” mosques; (2) madrasas being used as or reconstructed into mosques; (3) buildings allegedly being constructed as mosques; (4) private homes and public spaces being used as mosques; and cases of (5) closed mosques not being allowed to reopen. The author primarily used Myanmar-language resources as well as interviews to conduct the research.

Keywords

legalitylegal violenceanti-mosque extremismreligious minoritiesMyanmar
Type
Religious Nationalism and Religious Freedom in Asia
Information
Asian Journal of Law and Society , Volume 8 , Issue 1 , February 2021 , pp. 108 - 131
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Asian Journal of Law and Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

7 Day Daily (2016) “Conflict in Thuye Thamain Village, Waw Township Calms Down,” 24 June, http://www.7daydaily.com/story/68405 (accessed 24 June 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Abrego, Leisy J., & Lakhani, Sarah M. (2015) “Incomplete Inclusion: Legal Violence and Immigrants in Liminal Legal Statuses.” 37 Law & Policy 265–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adamson, Erin, Menjívar, Cecilia, & Walsh, Shannon D. (2020) “The Impact of Adjacent Laws on Implementing Violence Against Women Laws: Legal Violence in the Lives of Costa Rican Women.” 45 Law & Social Inquiry 432–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al, Jazeera (2010) “More Malaysia Churches Attacked,” https://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2010/01/2010110225838805341.html (accessed 1 July 2019).Google Scholar
Al, Jazeera (2019) “Ayodhya Verdict: Indian Top Court Gives Disputed Site to Hindus,” https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/babri-mosque-case-indian-top-court-disputed-site-hindus-191109052713446.html (accessed 25 March 2020).Google Scholar
Alvord, Daniel R., Cecilia, Menjívar, & Andrea Gómez, Cervantes (2018) “The Legal Violence in the 2017 Executive Orders: The Expansion of Immigrant Criminalization in Kansas.” 5 Social Currents 411–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Appleby, R. Scott (2000) The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
AsiaNews (2019) “Three Mosques Closed near Yangon Following Threats by Buddhist Nationalists,” http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Three-mosques-closed-near-Yangon-following-threats-by-Buddhist-nationalists-47042.html (accessed 17 July 2019).Google Scholar
Aung, Aung (2018) “Objection Signature Campaign Held for Effort to Construct Religious Building for Other Religion,” 14 Pyidaungsu 24 (in Burmese).Google Scholar
BBC (2013) “Burma Communal Rioting Spreads outside Meiktila,” 25 March, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-21921080 (accessed 1 May 2019).Google Scholar
BBC (Burmese) (2017a) “Muslim Prayer Sites in Meiktila Closure,” 4 June, https://www.bbc.com/burmese/burma-40151828 (accessed 2 August 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
BBC (Burmese) (2017b) “Order Issued Against Prayers in Non-Permitted Places,” 24 August, https://www.bbc.com/burmese/41044609 (accessed 1 August 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
BBC (Burmese) (2019) “The Man Who Accused the Government of Powerlessness in Dealing with Illegal Mosque Sued,” 17 May, https://www.bbc.com/burmese/burma-48316879 (accessed 30 May 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Bdnews24 (2012) “Buddhist Temples, Homes Burned, Looted in Ramu,” 29 September, https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2012/09/29/buddhist-temples-homes-burned-looted-in-ramu (accessed 1 May 2019).Google Scholar
Brass, Paul R. (2003) The Production of Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India, Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Burstein, Alon (2018) ”Armies of God, Armies of Men: A Global Comparison of Secular and Religious Terror Organizations.” 30 Terrorism and Political Violence 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callahan, Mary (2012) “The Opening in Burma: The General Loosen Their Grip.” 23 Journal of Democracy 120–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan, Nyein (2013) “After Monks’ Protest, Order to Stop Building Islamic School and Prayer Space Issued,” 7 Day Daily, 23 November, http://www.7daydaily.com/story/4863 (accessed 28 June 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Chan, Nyein (2016) “Meiktila Residents Worry Due to Rumours,” 7 Day Daily, 28 April, http://7daydaily.com/story/63383 (accessed 21 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Asia Channel News (2017) “Yangon Authorities Sue Muslims for Praying in the Street,” https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/yangon-authorities-sue-muslims-for-praying-in-the-street-8907934 (accessed 20 June 2019).Google Scholar
Asia Channel News (2019) “Sri Lanka Imposes New Curfew as Mosques Attacked,” https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/sri-lanka-bombings-block-facebook-whatsapp-11527832 (accessed 30 May 2019).Google Scholar
Cheesman, Nick (2009) “Thin Rule of Law or Un-Rule of Law in Myanmar?” 82 Pacific Affairs 597–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheesman, Nick (2014) “What Does the Rule of Law Have to Do with Democratisation (in Myanmar)?” 22 South East Asia Research 213–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheesman, Nick (2015a) Opposing the Rule of Law: How Myanmar’s Courts Make Law and Order, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheesman, Nick (2015b) “That Signifier of Desire, the Rule of Law.” 82 Social Research: An International Quarterly 267–90.Google Scholar
Cheesman, Nick (2017) “How in Myanmar ‘National Races’ Came to Surpass Citizenship and Exclude Rohingya.” 47 Journal of Contemporary Asia 461–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chhibber, Pradeep K., & Subhash, Misra (1993) “Hindus and the Babri Masjid: The Sectional Basis of Communal Attitudes.” 33 Asian Survey 665–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crouch, Melissa (2010) “Implementing the Regulation on Places of Worship in Indonesia: New Problems, Local Politics and Court Action.” 34 Asian Studies Review 403–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crouch, Melissa (2019) “States of Legal Denial: How the State in Myanmar Uses Law to Exclude the Rohingya.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 1–24.Google Scholar
Democratic Voice of Burma (Burmese) (2019) “Votes Collected for Praying Again in Two Mosques in Chauk,” 31 March, http://burmese.dvb.no/archives/320448 (accessed 13 June 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Egreteau, Renaud (2011) “Burmese Indians in Contemporary Burma: Heritage, Influence, and Perceptions since 1988.” 12 Asian Ethnicity 33–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egreteau, Renaud (2016) Caretaking Democratization: The Military and Political Change in Myanmar, New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fox, Jonathan (1999) “Towards a Dynamic theory of Ethno-Religious Conflict.” 5 Nations and Nationalism 431–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, Jonathan (2004) “The Rise of Religious Nationalism and Conflict: Ethnic Conflict and Revolutionary Wars: 1945–2001.” 41 Journal of Peace Research 715–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frasch, Tilman (2013) “The Relic and the Rule of Righteousness: Reflections on U Nu’s Dhammavijaya ,” in Whalen-Bridge, J. & Kitiarsa, P., eds., Buddhism, Modernity, and the State in Asia: Forms of Engagement, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 115–38.Google Scholar
Frydenlund, Iselin (2017) “Religious Liberty for Whom? The Buddhist Politics of Religious Freedom during Myanmar’s Transition to Democracy.” 35 Nordic Journal of Human Rights 55–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frydenlund, Iselin (2018) “The Birth of Buddhist Politics of Religious Freedom in Myanmar.” 4 Journal of Religious and Political Practice 107–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
General Administration Department (2017) “Regional Statistics,” http://www.gad.gov.mm (accessed 12 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
George, Cherian (2016) Hate Spin: The Manufacture of Religious Offense and Its Threat to Democracy, Cambridge, MA and London: The MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Global New Light of Myanmar (2016) “Press Release on Concerning Illegally Construction of Religious Edifices in Hpakant,” Ministry of Religious Affairs and Culture.Google Scholar
Haynes, Jeffrey (2009) ”Conflict, Conflict Resolution and Peace-Building: The Role of Religion in Mozambique, Nigeria and Cambodia.” 47 Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 52–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hlaing, Myint Kyaw (2019) “How to Clean Garbage on Social Media,” 7 Day Daily, 28 June, http://7daydaily.com/story/159533 (accessed 13 June 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Htun, Htun (2019) “Township Administrator Sues Nationalists over Ramadan Prayer Site Closures in Yangon,” Irrawaddy (English), 17 May, https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/township-administrator-sues-nationalists-ramadan-prayer-site-closures-yangon.html (accessed 1 August 2019).Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch (2002) Crackdown on Burmese Muslims, Washington, DC: Human Rights Watch, https://www.hrw.org/report/2002/07/18/crackdown-burmese-muslims (accessed 4 May 2020).Google Scholar
Images Asia (1997) Report on the Situation for Muslims in Burma, Bangkok: Images Asia.Google Scholar
Irrawaddy (2019) “Nationalist Who Lead Closure of Ramadan Prayer Sites Arrested,” https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/nationalist-lead-closure-ramadan-prayer-sites-arrested.html (accessed 1 August 2019).Google Scholar
Juergensmeyer, Mark (2017) Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence, 4th edn, Oakland, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kaung (Pyay), Maung (2018) “Signatures Collected to Object to Effort to Build Mosque in Monyo,” Akonthi, 3 November, https://www.akonthi.com/ShweMoeNyo-7890 (accessed 12 June 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Kawanami, Hiroko (2016) “U Nu’s Liberal Democracy and Buddhist Communalism in Modern Burma,” in Kawanami, Hiroko, ed., Buddhism and the Political Process, Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 31–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyaw, Kyaw Phone (2017a) “A Day of Tension and Drama as Nationalist Protests Flare,” Frontier, 3 May, https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/a-day-of-tension-and-drama-as-nationalist-protests-flare (accessed 1 June 2019).Google Scholar
Kyaw, Nyi Nyi (2015) “Alienation, Discrimination, and Securitization: Legal Personhood and Cultural Personhood of Muslims in Myanmar.” 13 Review of Faith & International Affairs 50–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyaw, Nyi Nyi (2016) “Islamophobia in Buddhist Myanmar: The 969 Movement and Anti-Muslim Violence,” in Crouch, M., ed., Islam and the State in Myanmar: Muslim-Buddhist Relations and the Politics of Belonging, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 183–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyaw, Nyi Nyi (2017b) “Unpacking the Presumed Statelessness of Rohingyas.” 15 Journal of Immigrant and Refugee Studies 269–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyaw, Nyi Nyi (2018) “Myanmar’s Other Muslims: The Case of the Kaman,” in South, A. & Lall, M., eds., Citizenship in Myanmar: Ways of Being In and From Burma, Singapore: ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute, 279–300.Google Scholar
Kyaw, Nyi Nyi (2019a) “Adulteration of the Pure Native Race by Aliens? Kapya and Their Socio-Legal Identity in Colonial Burma and Present-Day Myanmar.” 25 Social Identities 345–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyaw, Nyi Nyi (2019b) Interreligious Conflict and the Politics of Interfaith Dialogue in Myanmar, Singapore: ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyaw, Phyo Wai, Kyaw, Soe Hlaing, & Naing, Soe Than (2013) “Mandalay Religious Leaders Unite,” Myanmar Times (English), 17 June, https://www.mmtimes.com/national-news/mandalay-upper-myanmar/7148-mandalay-religious-leaders-to-unite-for-june-23-ceremony.html (accessed 31 July 2019).Google Scholar
Lim, Jamus (2008) ”Jesus versus Jihad: Economic Shocks and Religious Violence in the Indonesian Republic at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century.” 19 Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 269–303.Google Scholar
Lwin, Khin Moet Moet (2017) “Township Administrator Issues Order against Prayers,” 7 Day Daily, 2 June, http://7daydaily.com/story/97817 (accessed 11 June 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Lynn, Nyan Hlaing (2017) “Angry Mob Forces Destruction of Home in Kyaukpadaung after ‘Mosque’ Rumours,” Frontier, 28 July, https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/angry-mob-forces-destruction-of-home-in-kyaukpadaung-after-mosque-rumours (accessed 16 June 2019).Google Scholar
Mani, Rama (2012) “Cure or Curse? The Role of Religion in Violent Conflict and Peaceful Governance.” 18 Global Governance 149–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maung, Aung Ye Maung (2013) “People Including Monks Visit Yangon Mosque,” Voice of America (Burmese), 16 June, https://burmese.voanews.com/a/burma-muslim-06–16–13/1682782.html (accessed 28 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
McCarthy, Gerard, & Jacqueline, Menager (2017) “Gendered Rumours and the Muslim Scapegoat in Myanmar’s Transition.” 47 Journal of Contemporary Asia 396–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendelson, E. Michael (1975) Sangha and State in Burma: A Study of Monastic Sectarianism and Leadership, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Menjívar, Cecilia, & Leisy, Abrego (2012) “Legal Violence: Immigration Law and the Lives of Central American Immigrants.” 117 American Journal of Sociology 1380–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menke, Christoph (2010) “Law and Violence.” 22 Law & Literature 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Min, Aung Kyaw (2017a) “Demolition of House Suspected Mosque to be Probed,” Myanmar Times (English), 2 August, https://www.mmtimes.com/national-news/yangon/27053-demolition-of-house-suspected-mosque-to-be-probed.html (accessed 1 August 2019).Google Scholar
Min, Aung Kyaw (2017b) “Two Arabic Schools Temporarily Shut Down by Authorities,” Myanmar Times (English), 1 May, https://www.mmtimes.com/national-news/yangon/25796-two-arabic-schools-temporally-shut-down-by-authorities.html (accessed 1 June 2019).Google Scholar
Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population (2016) The Union Report: Religion: Census Report Volume 2-C, Nay Pyi Taw: Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population.Google Scholar
Ministry of Religious Affairs and Culture (2016) “Case of Closure of 3 Mosques in Shwegyin Township, Bago Region Reported on Social Media by Myanmar Muslim Media,” 21 November, http://www.mora.gov.mm/newsview.ASPX?nid=212 (accessed 1 August 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Mon, Ma Su (2015) “Prayers at Thaketa Islamic Schools Banned,” VOA (Burmese), 20 October, https://burmese.voanews.com/a/tight-security-in-myanmar-muslim-area-/3015093.html (accessed 20 June 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Mon, Ye (2016) “Mob Burns Down Muslim Prayer Hall in Hpakant,” Myanmar Times (English), 4 July, https://www.mmtimes.com/national-news/21172-mob-burns-down-muslim-prayer-hall-in-hpakant.html (accessed 30 July 2019).Google Scholar
Murdocca, Carmela (2010) “‘There Is Something in that Water’: Race, Nationalism, and Legal Violence.” 35 Law & Social Inquiry 369–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naing, Kyaw Thet (2019) “People’s Votes Collected Due to Muslims’ Demand for Praying Again in Two Mosques Destroyed in Conflict,” Akonthi, 1 April, https://www.akonthi.com/ShweMoeNyo-14850 (accessed 12 June 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Naing, Shoon (2018) “A Year after Myanmar Madrassas Shuttered, Street Prayer Organizers Face Ramadan in Jail,” Reuters, 17 May, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-muslims/a-year-after-myanmar-madrassas-shuttered-street-prayer-organizers-face-ramadan-in-jail-idUSKCN1II1UO (accessed 16 June 2019).Google Scholar
Narinjara (2012) “Four Muslims Arrested After Handmade Weapons Found in a Mosque,” BNI Multimedia Group, 6 November, https://www.bnionline.net/en/narinjara-news/item/14072-four-muslims-arrested-after-handmade-weapons-found-in-a-mosque.html (accessed 15 July 2019).Google Scholar
News-eleven (2018) “Authorities Warn and Lock Sat Pyit Taung Village Mosque in Meiktila After Prayers without Permission,” https://news-eleven.com/news/63830 (accessed 2 August 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Norris, Pippa, & Ronald, Inglehart (2011) Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oo, Ali Tin Tun (2013a) “Patron of Blood Metta (Social Work Association) Shwe Thanlyin Sayadaw’s Speech at Interfaith Peace and Social Harmony Event,” 59Mosque, 14 October, http://59mosque.com/archives/351 (accessed 20 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Oo, Ali Tin Tun (2013b) “U Ko Ko Gyi’s Speech at 1487th Anniversary of Prophet Day at Wish-Fulfilling Mosque,” 59Mosque, 9 October, http://59mosque.com/archives/307 (accessed 25 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Oo, Ali Tin Tun (2013c) “U Mya Aye’s Speech at 1487th Anniversary of Prophet Day at Wish-Fulfilling Mosque,” 59Mosque, 9 October, http://59mosque.com/archives/337 (accessed 25 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Pearson, Elaine (2013) In Religion’s Name: Abuses against Religious Minorities in Indonesia, New York: Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar
Prasse-Freeman, Elliott (2014) “Conceptions of Justice and the Rule of Law,” in Steinberg, David, ed., Myanmar: The Dynamics of an Evolving Polity, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 89–114.Google Scholar
Pyae, Aye Mon Yar (2014) “Inter-Faith Day Tours to Be Held in 3 Cities,” 7 Day Daily, 27 June, http://7daydaily.com/story/14229 (accessed 30 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Radio Free Asia (Burmese) (2013) “Prevention Committee Formed to Protect Taunggyi from the Spread of Conflict,” 31 March, https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/myanmar-precaution-conflit-03312013100009.html (accessed 20 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Radio Free Asia (Burmese) (2014) “Multifaith Youths Visit Religious Buildings,” 24 May, https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/youth-study-religious-building-05242014101757.html (accessed 31 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Radio Free Asia (Burmese) (2019) “Muslims Allowed to Pray Again in South Dagon,” 17 May, https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/south-dagon-islam-religious-building-05172019074433.html (accessed 1 June 2019) (in Arabic).Google Scholar
Rfa.org (2014) “Multifaith Youths Visit Religious Buildings,” https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/youth-study-religious-building-05242014101757.html (accessed 31 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Sar, Shwe Ku Thit (2014) “Interfaith Youth Tours to Continue,” Myanmar Times (Burmese), 5 March, https://myanmar.mmtimes.com/national-news/9405–2014–03–05–07–24–24.html (accessed 31 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Schissler, Matt, Walton, Matthew J., & Thi, Phyu Phyu (2017) “Reconciling Contradictions: Buddhist-Muslim Violence, Narrative Making and Memory in Myanmar.” 47 Journal of Contemporary Asia 376–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seul, Jeffrey R. (1999) “‘Ours Is the Way of God’: Religion, Identity, and Intergroup Conflict.” 36 Journal of Peace Research 553–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Donald E. (1965) Religion and Politics in Burma, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Edmond J. (2018) “Reporting and Interpreting Legal Violence in Asia: The East India Company’s Printed Accounts of Torture, 1603–24.” 46 The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 603–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soe, Hein Ko (2016) “No Immediate Plans for ‘Illegal’ Buildings on Border: Rakhine Govt,” Frontier, 26 September, https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/no-immediate-plans-for-illegal-buildings-on-border-rakhine-govt (accessed 1 August 2019).Google Scholar
Soe, Hein Ko (2018) “Religion Ministry, GAD Target Islamic Schools,” Frontier, 24 July, https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/religion-ministry-gad-target-islamic-schools (accessed 1 August 2019).Google Scholar
Sone, Nyein Pyae (2013) “Monks Offered Alms and Discuss Peace at Mosque,” Irrawaddy (Burmese), 3 July, https://burma.irrawaddy.com/news/2013/07/03/43587.html (accessed 31 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Sopaka, Ashin (2013) History-Making Speeches, Yangon: Eiksathaya Sarpay (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Stuesse, Angela (2018) “When They’re Done with You: Legal Violence and Structural Vulnerability among Injured Immigrant Poultry Workers.” 39 Anthropology of Work Review 79–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szep, Jason (2013) “Special Report: Buddhist Monks Incite Muslim Killings in Myanmar,” Reuters, 8 April, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-violence-specialreport/special-report-buddhist-monks-incite-muslim-killings-in-myanmar-idUSBRE9370AP20130408 (accessed 1 August 2019).Google Scholar
Tagliacozzo, Eric (2014) “Burmese and Muslim: Islam and the Hajj in the Sangha State,” in Wen-Chin, Chang & Tagliacozzo, Eric, eds., Burmese Lives: Ordinary Life Stories Under the Burmese Regime, New York: Oxford University Press, 83–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tha, Kyaw Phyo, & Lawi, Weng (2017) “Breaking: Nationalist Mob Closes Two Islamic Schools in Rangoon,” Irrawaddy (English), 28 April, https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/breaking-nationalist-mob-closes-two-islamic-schools-rangoon.html (accessed 1 June 2019).Google Scholar
Than, Tharaphi (2015) ”Nationalism, Religion, and Violence: Old and New Wunthanu Movements in Myanmar.” 13 The Review of Faith & International Affairs 12–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Than, Tin Maung Maung (2013) “Myanmar’s 2012 By-Elections: The Return of NLD.” 38 Southeast Asian Affairs 204–19.Google Scholar
Thein, Cherry (2013) “Building in 3/Mann Pyay Quarter in Thaketa Sealed,” Myanmar Times (Burmese), 21 February, https://myanmar.mmtimes.com/national-news/yangon/3786–2013–02–21–07–02–58.html (accessed 15 June 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Thu, Mratt Kyaw (2016) “Dozens Take Refuge after Mosque Ransacked in Bago Village,” Frontier, 24 June, https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/news/dozens-take-refuge-mosque-ransacked-bago-village (accessed 24 June 2019).Google Scholar
Thuya, Aung (2013) “Conflict-Prevention Committees Formed in Yangon,” 7 Day Daily, 28 April, http://7daydaily.com/content/196 (accessed 21 July 2019) (in Burmese).Google Scholar
Tun, Zarni (2016) “Mosque Destroyed in Myanmar Village as Tensions Flare Between Muslims and Buddhists,” Radio Free Asia (Burmese), 24 June, https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/mosque-destroyed-in-myanmar-village-as-tensions-flare-between-muslims-and-buddhists-06242016155224.html (accessed 24 June 2019).Google Scholar
van Klinken, Gerry, & Su Mon Thazin, Aung (2017) “The Contentious Politics of Anti-Muslim Scapegoating in Myanmar.” 47 Journal of Contemporary Asia 353–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villegas, Paloma E. (2019) “I Made Myself Small Like a Cat and Ran Away: Workplace Sexual Harassment, Precarious Immigration Status and Legal Violence.” 28 Journal of Gender Studies 674–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VOA News (2016) “Mosques, Madrasas to be Razed in Myanmar’s Rakhine State,” 21 September, https://www.voanews.com/east-asia/mosques-madrasas-be-razed-myanmars-rakhine-state (accessed 15 July 2019).Google Scholar
Wai, Khin Su (2014) “Muslims in Mandalay Avoid Mosques after Violence, Arrests,” Myanmar Times (English), 12 July, https://www.mmtimes.com/national-news/10956-during-ramadan-mandalay-muslims-stay-away-from-mosques.html (accessed 20 July 2019).Google Scholar
Walton, Matthew J., & Susan, Hayward (2014) Contesting Buddhist Narratives: Democratization, Nationalism, and Communal Violence in Myanmar, Honolulu: East-West Center.Google Scholar
Walton, Matthew J., Melyn, McKay, & Khin Mar, Mar Kyi Daw (2015) “Women and Myanmar’s ‘Religious Protection Laws’.” 13 Review of Faith & International Affairs 36–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wellman, J. K. Jr, & Kyoko, Tokuno (2004) “Is Religious Violence Inevitable?” 43 Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 291–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Win, Swe (2019) “Nationalist Mob Shuts Down Ramadan Prayers in Yangon,” Myanmar Now (English), 16 May, https://www.myanmar-now.org/en/news/nationalist-mob-shuts-down-ramadan-prayers-in-yangon (accessed 1 June 2019).Google Scholar
Yee, Choong Pui, & Joseph Chinyong, Liow (2017) “Negotiating Religious Freedom: Christianity in Muslim-Majority Malaysia,” in Satha-Anand, C. & Urbain, O., eds., Protecting the Sacred, Creating Peace in Asia-Pacific, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge, 107–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yonucu, Deniz (2018) “The Absent Present Law: An Ethnographic Study of Legal Violence in Turkey.” 27 Social & Legal Studies 716–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ysseldyk, Renate, Kimberly, Matheson, & Hymie, Anisman (2010) “Religiosity as Identity: Toward an Understanding of Religion from a Social Identity Perspective.” 14 Personality and Social Psychology Review 60–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zarni, Maung, & Alice, Cowley (2014) “The Slow-Burning Genocide of Myanmar’s Rohingya.” 23 Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal 681–752.Google Scholar
Zin, Min (2015) “Anti-Muslim Violence in Burma: Why Now?” 82 Social Research 375–97.Google Scholar