No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
The Advent of Lawyers in Japanese Government
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 November 2017
Abstract
Until 2003, Japanese lawyers were prohibited by law from entering full-time employment in governmental bodies. That year, in line with recommendations by the Justice System Reform Council, the Lawyers Act was amended to permit lawyers to undertake such employment. Incorporating information and insights from interviews with former government lawyers and other concerned parties, this article examines the rise in the hiring of government lawyers and its impact. The article considers factors that have contributed to the increase, examines the roles played by these lawyers, considers prospects for the future, and discusses implications for government, the legal profession, clients, and legal education and training. The article also seeks to identify a range of issues raised by these developments that warrant further in-depth research.
Keywords
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- Copyright
- © Cambridge University Press and KoGuan Law School, Shanghai Jiao Tong University 2018
Footnotes
*
Professor of Law, The University of Tokyo; Senior Adviser, Asian Law Center, University of Washington School of Law. I have benefited from information, advice, and comments from many sources. I would like to express my appreciation to Bruce Aronson, Bandō Kumiko, Kay-wah Chan, John Haley, Hayami Yū, Colin Jones, Kitagawa Masayasu, Craig Martin, Murayama Masayuki, Luke Nottage, Ōta Shōzō, Yorikane Daisuke, and numerous former students and other interviewees who have worked as government lawyers or public servants. I have benefited greatly from presentations and discussions regarding this topic at several sessions of the Citizens’ Council (Shimin Kaigi) for the Japan Federation of Bar Associations (JFBA), and from helpful feedback following presentations at the Inaugural Asian Law and Society Association Conference, National University of Singapore, 22 September 2016, and the Asian Law Lecture Series, University of Washington School of Law, 2 March 2017. I am especially grateful to Michi Mayumi and others involved in JFBA efforts to promote the hiring of government lawyers, to Okamoto Tadashi, to Nomura Yū, and to Kanayama Aiko for their support and the extensive information and feedback they have provided. Portions of my research were supported by the following grants, for which I wish to express my gratitude: Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research, Base Studies B, No. 24330005 (Role of Law in Post-Disaster Relief, Prevention of Damage and Promotion of Recovery); JSPS, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research, Base Studies A, No. 25245002 (Empirical Research on Alternative Dispute Resolution Processes); and the Foundation for Research in Civil Dispute Resolution (Lawyers in Every Corner of Society?). Note regarding formatting and translations: for cites to works published in English, I have used the name order that appears in the publication. Otherwise, for Japanese names, I have followed the order normally used in Japan: namely family name first, followed by given name. Except as otherwise indicated, all translations are by the author.
References
Chihō Jichitai ni okeru Hōsōyūshikakusha no Katsudō Ryōiki no Kakudai ni kansuru Iken Kōkankai [Discussion Group regarding Expansion of the Scope for Activity by Bar-Qualified Persons in Local Bodies] (2013) “Chihō Jichitai ni okeru Hōsōyūshikakusha no Katsudō Ryōiki no Kakudai ni tsuite (Torimatome)” [“Regarding Expansion of the Scope for Activity by Bar-Qualified Persons in Local Bodies (Summary)”], 30 January 2013, http://www.moj.go.jp/content/000107768.pdf (accessed 27 August 2017).Google Scholar
Foote, Daniel H. (2007) “Introduction & Overview: Japanese Law at a Turning Point,” in D.H. Foote, ed., Law in Japan: A Turning Point, Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, xiv–xxxv.Google Scholar
Foote, Daniel H. (2013) “The Trials & Tribulations of Japan’s Legal Education Reforms.” 36 Hastings International & Comparative Law Review 369–442.Google Scholar
Foote, Daniel H. (2017) “Japan’s ADR System for Resolving Nuclear Power-Related Damage Disputes.” 12 University of Tokyo Law Review (forthcoming).Google Scholar
Green, Stephen, & Nottage, Luke (2015) “In Defence of Japan: Government Lawyers & Judicial System Reforms,” in L. Wolff, L. Nottage & K. Anderson, eds., Who Rules Japan? Popular Participation in the Japanese Legal Process, Cheltenham and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 63–107.Google Scholar
Gyōsei Kaikaku Kaigi [Administrative Reform Council] (1997) “Saishū Hōkoku” [“Final Report”], 3 December 1997, http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/gyokaku/report-final/ (accessed 27 August 2017).Google Scholar
Haley, John Owen (1991) Authority without Power: Law and the Japanese Paradox, New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hatena Lawyer (2017) “Bengoshi to shite Ninkitsuki Kōmuin ni natta Baai, Kyūryō ha dono kurai Deshou ka” [“In the Event of Becoming a Fixed-Term Public Servant, about How Much Will the Salary Be?”], http://h-bengoshi.com/archives/337 (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Hirabayashi, Keigo (2016) “Kagoshima-ken Minamisatsuma-shi” [“Minami-satsuma City, Kagoshima Prefecture”],’ in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 162–170.Google Scholar
Hōmushō Daijin Kanbō Shihōhōseibu [Ministry of Justice, Minister’s Secretariat, Justice & Legal System Bureau] (2015) “Kuni no Gyōseikikan tō ni okeru Hōsōyūshikakusha no Saiyō Jōkyō ni tsuite no Chōsa Kekka Hōkoku (Heisei 27nen 10gatsu Jisshibun)” [“Report on Results of Investigation into the Situation for Hiring of Bar-Qualified Persons by National Administrative Bodies, etc. (Undertaken in October 2015)”], Material 6 for the 3rd Meeting of Monbukagakushō [Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology], Hōsō Yōsei Seido Kaikaku Renraku Kyōgikai [Liaison Council on Legal Training System Reform], 18 March 2016, http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chousa/koutou/071/gijiroku/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2016/03/24/1368765_03.pdf (accessed 27 August 2017).Google Scholar
Hōmushō Daijin Kanbō Shihōhōseibu [Ministry of Justice, Minister’s Secretariat, Justice & Legal System Bureau] (2016) “Kuni no Gyōseikikan ni okeru Hōsōyūshikakusha no Saiyō・Kinmu no Jittai tō ni tsuite (Seisaku・Kokusai Bumon o Chūshin ni)” [“Regarding Actual Situation for Hiring & Work of Bar-Qualified Persons by National Administrative Bodies (Centred on Policymaking & International Spheres)”], Material 1–2 for the 5th Meeting of MEXT, Hōsō Yōsei Seido Kaikaku Renraku Kyōgikai [Liaison Council on Legal Training System Reform], 17 October 2016, http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chousa/koutou/071/attach/1378618.htm (accessed 27 August 2017).Google Scholar
Hōsō no Yōsei ni kansuru Fōramu [Forum on Legal Training] (2011) 3rd Session (13 July 2011), Material 6 (revised version, 14 July 2011), http://www.moj.go.jp/content/000077010.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
JILA (Japan In-House Lawyers Association) (2016) “Kigyōnai Bengoshi no Ninzū (2016nen12gatsumatsu jiten)” [“Number of Company In-House Lawyers (as of the End of December 2016)”], http://jila.jp/pdf/analysis201612.pdf (accessed 27 August 2017).Google Scholar
JILA (Japan In-House Lawyers Association) (2017a) “JILA to wa” [“What Is JILA?”], http://jila.jp/about/index.html (membership as of 31 December 2016: 1,336) (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
JILA (Japan In-House Lawyers Association) (2017b) “Kigyōnai Bengoshi Ankēto no Kekka (2017nen2gatsu jisshi)” [“Results of the Survey of Company In-House Lawyers (Conducted in February 2017)”], http://jila.jp/pdf/questionnaire201702_2.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Jinjiin [National Personnel Authority] (2016) “Shigoto to Katei no Ryōritsu Shien Kankei Seido no Riyō Jōkyō Chōsa (Heisei27nendo) no Kekka ni tsuite” [“Regarding the Results of the Survey on the Circumstances of Utilization of Systems Related to Supporting the Balancing of Work & Family (for 2015)”], 13 September 2016, http://www.jinji.go.jp/kisya/1609/ikukyu28gaiyou.htm (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Jinjiin [National Personnel Authority] (2017) “Kokka Kōmuin no Kōbo Jōhō Ichiran” [“Table of Information on Hiring Announcements for National Civil Servants”], http://www.jinji.go.jp/saiyo/saiyo/sonota/koubo_joho.htm (accessed 5 September 2017).Google Scholar
Kanayama, Aiko (2016) “Kokudo Kōtsūsho” [“Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, & Transport”], in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 108–114.Google Scholar
Kitada, Tomohiro (2005) “Kin’yūchō Kensakyoku ni okeru Shokumu” [“Work in the Investigation Bureau of the Financial Services Agency”].” 56 Jiyū to Seigi 90–95.Google Scholar
Kobayashi, Masahiro (2010) Konna Nichibenren ni Dare ga Shita? [Who Turned JFBA Into This?], Tokyo: Heibonsha.Google Scholar
Koyama, Takashi (2016) “Gaimushō/Naikaku Kanbō” [“Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Cabinet Secretariat”], in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 45–52.Google Scholar
Milhaupt, Curtis J., & West, Mark D. (2003) “Law’s Dominion and the Market for Legal Elites in Japan.” 34 Law & Policy in International Business 451–498.Google Scholar
Nakazato, Minoru, Mark, Ramseyer J., & Eric, Rasmusen B. (2010) “The Industrial Organization of the Japanese Bar.” 7 Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 460–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichibenren Bengoshi Gyōmu Sōgō Sentā [JFBA Centre for Promotion of Work for Lawyers] (2006) “Soshikinai Bengoshi Saiyō ni kansuru Kigyō/Kanchō/Chihōjichitai e no Chōsa” [“Survey of Businesses, National Government Agencies and Local Government Bodies Regarding Employment of In-House Lawyers”], Summary of results contained in Kigyō/Kankōchō/Chihōjichitai Ankēto no Bunseki Kekka [Results of Analysis of the Survey of Businesses, National Government Agencies, and Local Government Bodies], http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/jfba_info/publication/data/2006soshikinai_enquete_data.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2001) “Bengoshi no Arikata ni tsuite” [“Regarding How Lawyers Should Be”] Presented at Shihō Seido Kaikaku Shingikai [Justice System Reform Council], Attachment 2 to Materials for 44th Session, 23 January 2001.Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2009) “Tokushū: Tayōka Suru Bengoshi no Katsudō” [“Special Topic: Diversifying Activities of Lawyers”], in Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai, ed., Bengoshi Hakusho 2009nenban [White Paper on Lawyers, 2009 edn], Tokyo: Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai, 1–41, http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/publication/books/data/hakusyo_tokusyu2009_01.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2010) Bengoshi Hakusho 2010nenban [White Paper on Lawyers, 2010 edn], Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai, ed., Tokyo: Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai.Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2012) “Bengoshi o Hajime to Suru Hōsōyūshikakusha no Chihō Jichitai Shokuin e no Tōyō ni kansuru Zadankai” [“Round-Table Discussion Regarding the Appointment of Lawyers & Other Bar-Qualified Persons to Serve in Local Government Bodies”], http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/recruit/data/sosikinai_event_1204.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2014a) “Bengoshi ni Narou!! 8nin no Charenji” [“Let’s Become Lawyers! The Challenges of Eight People”], https://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/publication/booklet/data/bengoshininarou.pdf (accessed 13 September 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2014b) “Chihō Gyōsei Bun’ya ni okeru Hōteki Nīzu Haaku no tame no Ankēto,” Bunsekikekka Hōkokusho [“Report on the Analysis of Results of the ‘Survey Aimed at Grasping the Legal Needs in the Local Administrative Field’”], 31 August 2014, http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/recruit/data/local_needs_enquete2014_01.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2014c) “Chihō Kōkyō Dantai no Minasama e: Chihō Kōkyō Dantai ni okeru Bengoshi Saiyō Q&A” [“To All of You in Local Public Bodies: Q&A regarding Hiring of Lawyers by Local Public Bodies”], http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/publication/booklet/data/local_saiyo_qa_pam2014.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2014d) “Jichitainai Bengoshi to Iu Sentaku: Kirihirake Jichitai Hōmu!” [“Choosing to Become an In-House Lawyer for a Local Government Body: Help Open the New Field of Local Government Legal Work!”], http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/publication/booklet/data/jichitainai_bengoshi_pam_2014.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2015a) “Bengoshi o Jichitai Shokuin to shite yori Mijika ni Katsuyōshite Mimasen ka!” [“Won’t You Try Using a Lawyer Close By, as a Local Government Employee!”], http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/publication/booklet/data/shokuin_ninyo_pam2015.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2015b) “Chihō Kōkyō Dantai ni okeru Hōsōyūshikakusha no Jōkin Shokuin ni taisuru Ankēto Kekka Hōkoku (Bunseki/Gaiyō)” [“Report of the Results of a Survey of Bar-Qualified Full-Time Employees of Local Government Bodies (Analysis/Overview)”], Contained in Material 48–1–3 for the 48th Session of JFBA Citizens’ Council, 7 December 2015, 50/191.Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2015c) “Kisoteki Tōkei Jōhō Bakku Nanbā” [“Fundamental Statistics, Back Numbers”], http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/jfba_info/statistics/reform/fundamental_statistics/back_number.html (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2016a) Bengoshi Hakusho 2016nenban [White Paper on Lawyers, 2016 edn], Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai, ed., Tokyo: Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai.Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2016b) “Hito o, Shakai o Mamoru: Bengoshi no Shigoto” [“Protecting People, Protecting Society: The Work of Lawyers”], https://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/publication/booklet/data/shigoto_pam_160405.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2017a) “Bengoshi/Shūshūsei Kyūjin Kyūshoku Jōhō Teikyō Shisutemu: Himawari Kyūjin Kyūshoku Nabi” [“Himawari Job Openings/Job Wanted Navigator: System for Providing Information on Job Openings and Job Wanted, for Lawyers and Legal Apprentices”], https://www.bengoshikai.jp/kyujin/pdf/flyer_jichitai.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2017b) “Jichitainai Bengoshi tō Nin’yō Shien Jimusho Q&A” [“Q&A Regarding the Office to Assist for Employment of In-House Lawyers at Local Government Bodies”], http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/library/ja/recruit/data/jichitainai_qa.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2017c) “Ninkitsuki Kōmuin tō ni kansuru Tōkei” [“Statistics Regarding Fixed-Term Public Servants et al.”], http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/recruit/lawyer/sosikinai/data.html (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nihon Bengoshi Rengōkai [Japan Federation of Bar Associations] (2017d) “Soshikinai Bengoshi ni kansuru Shiryō no Ichiran” [“List of Materials Related to In-House Lawyers”], http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/recruit/lawyer/sosikinai/document.html (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Nomura, Yū (2016) “Miyagi-ken Ishinomaki-shi” [“Ishinomaki City, Miyagi Prefecture”], in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 211–219.Google Scholar
Ogino, Taizō (2016) “Hyōgo-ken Akashi-shi” [“Akashi City, Hyōgo Prefecture”], in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 171–179.Google Scholar
Ōhashi, Norihiro (2014) “Gendai Shakai no Bengoshi” [“Lawyers in Contemporary Society”], in S. Hiroyasu, Ō. Norihiro, S. Tatsuya, M. Yoshio, H. Kenzō, O. Kyōko & I. Yumiko, eds.,
Kyōsei no Hōshakaigaku: Fukushima-go no [Shakai to Hō] [Symbiotic Sociology of Law: [Law and Society] after Fukushima], Tokyo: Hōritsu Bunka Sha, 47–82.Google Scholar
Okamoto, Tadashi (2014) Saigai Fukkō Hōgaku [An Encouragement of Disaster Recovery and Revitalization Law], Tokyo: Keiō Gijuku Daigaku Shuppankai.Google Scholar
Okamoto, Tadashi, rep. ed. (2016a)
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan.Google Scholar
Okamoto, Tadashi (2016b) “Koramu 1: Kōmuin bengoshi saiyōsha no shiten—kōmuin bengoshi saiyō jichitai no ankēto kekka kara” [“Column 1: The Perspectives of Those Who Hire Kōmuin Bengoshi—Based on Results from the Survey of Local Government Bodies that Have Hired Kōmuin Bengoshi”],’ in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 140–145.Google Scholar
Okamoto, Tadashi (2016c) “Koramu 2: Nihon Soshikinai Bengoshi Kyōkai (JILA) Dai4bukai no Katsudō (1)—Tashutayō na Bun’ya no Ekisupāto ga Hōsō no Miryoku o ‘Kataru’ Ba –” [“Column 2: The Activities of Section 4 of the Japan In-House Lawyers Association (JILA) (1)—A Place for Experts in a Wide Range of Fields to ‘Relate’ the Appeal of the Legal Profession”], in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 180–184.Google Scholar
Okamoto, Tadashi (2016d) “Naikakufu” [“Cabinet Office”], in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 20–29.Google Scholar
Ōsugi, Satoru, Masaharu, Kouda, Tōru, Suda, Ōsugi, Okumiya, Masayuki, Nishio, Tadashi, Okamoto, Takuya, Katō & Seiji, Okamoto (2016) “Chihō Gyōsei ni okeru Hōsōyūshikakusha no Katsuyō ni kansuru Kenkyū—Ninkitsuki Bengoshi o Chūshin to shite” [“Research Regarding the Utilization of Bar-Qualified Persons in Local Administration—Centred on Fixed-Term Lawyers”]. 12 Hō to Jitsumu 1–267.Google Scholar
Ōuchi, Hyōe, & Sakae, Wagatsuma (1965)
Nihon no Saiban Seido [The Japanese Court System], Tokyo: Iwanami Shinsho.Google Scholar
Rinji Shihō Seido Chōsakai [Provisional Justice System Investigation Committee] (1964) “Rinji Shihō Seido Chōsakai Ikensho” [“Recommendations of the Provisional Justice System Investigation Committee”], August 1964, reprinted as special supplement to 16 Hōsō Jihō 1964, http://www.moj.go.jp/content/000036339.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Rokumoto, Kahei (2007) “Legal Education,” in D.H. Foote, ed., Law in Japan: A Turning Point, Seattle & London: University of Washington Press, 190–232.Google Scholar
Sakamoto, Yukari (2016) “Kin’yūchō” [“Financial Services Agency”], in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 76–82.Google Scholar
Sapporo Bengoshikai, Shihō Kaikaku Suishin Iinkai [Sapporo Bar Association, Committee to Promote Justice Reform] (2009) “Bengoshi no Shimei to Zōin Mondai ni kansuru Ikensho” [“Opinion Regarding Lawyers’ Mission and the Problem of Increasing the Size of the Legal Profession”], 5 March 2009, http://www.veritas-law.jp/ronbun_doc/20091001184532_1.pdf (accessed 13 September 2017).Google Scholar
Satō, Kōji, Morio, Takeshita, & Masahito, Inouye (2002)
Shihō Seido Kaikaku [Justice System Reform], Tokyo: Yūhikaku.Google Scholar
Shihō Seido Kaikaku Shingikai [Justice System Reform Council] (2001) Shihō Seido Kaikaku Shingikai Ikensho—21seiki no Nihon o Sasaeru Shihō Seido [Recommendations of the Justice System Reform Council—For a Justice System to Support Japan in the Twenty-First Century], 12 June, http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/sihouseido/report-dex.html (in Japanese); http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/judiciary/2001/0612report.html (in English) (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Suzuki, Yoshikazu (2005) “Ninkitsuki Kōmuin Seido no Igi to Genjō” [“The Significance and Current Situation of the Fixed Term Public Servant System”].” 56 Jiyū to Seigi 59–63.Google Scholar
Tanigaki, Taketo (2011) “Chihō Kōkyō Dantai ni okeru Hōsōyūshikakusha no Shokuin Tōyō no Genjō to Kadai” [“The Current Situation of and Challenges for Hiring Those Holding Legal Practice Qualification by Local Public Bodies”].” 62 Jiyū to Seigi 9–12.Google Scholar
US Department of Labor (2015) “Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Employment Statistics, Occupational Employment and Wages, 23–1011 Lawyers,” May 2015, https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes231011.htm (accessed 28 August 2017).Google Scholar
Watanabe, Chihara (2015) “Bengoshi e no Tenshoku: Zenshoku Keiken no aru Bengoshi no Gyōmu Tokusei to Bengoshikan” [“Occupation Change to Lawyer: Special Work Characteristics and Views on Lawyers by Lawyers with Prior Employment Experience”], in I. Satō & R. Hamano, eds.,
Hendōki no Nihon no Bengoshi [Japanese Lawyers in a Time of Change], Tokyo: Nippon Hyōronsha, 160–176.Google Scholar
WILL Chiiku Kenkyuōsho (2017)
Bengoshi no Himitsu [The Secret of Lawyers], Tokyo: Gakken Plus.Google Scholar
Wolff, Leon, Nottage, Luke, & Anderson, Kent (2015) “Introduction: Who Rules Japan?,” in L. Wolff, L. Nottage & K. Anderson, eds., Who Rules Japan? Popular Participation in the Japanese Legal Process, Cheltenham & Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 1–17.Google Scholar
Yabuuchi, Shunsuke (2016) “Kōsei Torihiki Iinkai” [“Fair Trade Commission”], in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 124–133.Google Scholar
Yazawa, Shōji (2003) “Bengoshi no Eigyō/Kōmu Kennin no Jiyūka” [“Liberalization of Lawyers’ Work for Private Enterprise/Public Service”].” 54 Jiyū to Seigi 31–36.Google Scholar
Yukimura, Toshiya (2016) “Kōmuin Bengoshi no Hajimari” [“The Start for Kōmuin Bengoshi”], in T. Okamoto, rep. ed.,
Kōmuin Bengoshi no Subete [All About Kōmuin Bengoshi], Tokyo: LexisNexis Japan, 3–9.Google Scholar