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Need For Fairness In Climate Change Negotiations: A Third World Perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 February 2025

Rahul MOHANTY Open the ORCID record for Rahul MOHANTY [Opens in a new window]
Rahul MOHANTY*
Affiliation:
Jindal Global Law School, OP Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
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Email: [email protected]
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Abstract

This article discusses the history and the prospects of the climate change negotiations and seeks to show that they are structurally and systematically disadvantageous to the countries and the peoples of the Third World/Global South. The article uses the TWAIL approach to discuss the North-South divide and the differing approaches to climate justice. The article then discusses the history of climate change negotiations, in particular, climate finance and loss and damage, and shows that modes of these negotiations have been disadvantageous to the Third World and are unlikely to fulfil their aspirations. The article highlights the need for incorporating certain principles of fairness, not just in substantive law, but also in how negotiations are conducted. It concludes with thoughts on what these principles of fairness may look like, and the role international and domestic courts can play in evolving them.

Keywords

climate changeclimate justiceclimate negotiationsfairnessglobal southTWAIL
Type
Article
Information
Asian Journal of International Law , First View , pp. 1 - 33
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Asian Society for International Law.

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References

1 This ranges from ancient philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius to Hobbes, Bentham, and Kant in more modern times. For a useful overview, see: David MILLER, “Justice” in Edward N. ZALTA and Uri NODELMAN, eds., The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Stanford, California, Fall 2023 Edition), online: Stanford University https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/justice/; David JOHNSTON, A Brief History of Justice (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2011).

2 John RAWLS, “Justice as Fairness: Political Not Metaphysical” (1985) 14 Philosophy & Public Affairs 223.

3 John RAWLS, A Theory of Justice, 1st ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971).

4 Rawls, supra note 2.

5 Thomas M. FRANCK, “Fairness and International Law: An Analytical Framework” in Thomas M. FRANCK, ed., Fairness in International Law and Institutions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), at 7.

6 Ibid., at 14.

7 Ibid., at 21.

8 Thomas M. FRANCK, “Law, Moral Philosophy and Economics in Environmental Discourse” in Thomas M. FRANCK, ed., Fairness in International Law and Institutions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 350.

9 Thomas M. FRANCK, “Some Instances of Fairness in Establishing Environmental Normative Systems” in Thomas M. FRANCK, ed., Fairness in International Law and Institutions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 380.

10 Ibid., 412.

11 For a comprehensive account of TWAIL’s origins in the 1990s, see: James Thuo GATHII, “TWAIL: A Brief History of Its Origins, Its Decentralized Network, and a Tentative Bibliography” (2011) 3 Trade Law & Development 26.

12 For a recent, rather comprehensive overview of TWAIL scholarship, see Antony ANGHIE, “Rethinking International Law: A TWAIL Retrospective” (2023) 34 European Journal of International Law 7.

13 See: Makau MUTUA, “What Is TWAIL?” (2000) 94 Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting 31; Obiora Chinedu OKAFOR, “Newness, Imperialism, and International Legal Reform in Our Time: A TWAIL Perspective” (2005) 43 Osgoode Hall Law Journal 171; B.S. CHIMNI, “Third World Approaches to International Law: A Manifesto” (2006) 8 International Community Law Review 3; Obiora Chinedu OKAFOR, “Critical Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL): Theory, Methodology, or Both?” (2008) 10 International Community Law Review 371; Gathii, supra note 11; Luis ESLAVA and Sundhya PAHUJA, “Beyond the (Post)Colonial: TWAIL and the Everyday Life of International Law” (2012) 45 Verfassung und Recht in Übersee/Law and Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America 195; Kwadwo APPIAGYEI-ATUA, “Ethical Dimensions of Third-World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL): A Critical Review” (2015) 8 African Journal of Legal Studies 209; Usha NATARAJAN, John REYNOLDS, Amar BHATIA, Sujith XAVIERl, “Introduction: TWAIL – on Praxis and the Intellectual” (2016) 37 Third World Quarterly 1946; Anghie, supra note 12.

14 Anghie, supra note 12; Appiagyei-Atua, supra note 13.

15 While a detailed discussion of broader TWAIL scholarship on history of international laws or specific international law rules is beyond the scope of this article, for some representative literature see for e.g. Antony ANGHIE, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); B.S. CHIMNI, “Customary International Law: A Third World Perspective” (2018) 112 American Journal of International Law 1; B.S. CHIMNI, “The Grotian Tradition, Grotian Moment, and Decolonization: A TWAIL Perspective” (2021) 42 Grotiana 252; B.S. CHIMNI, “The International Law of Jurisdiction: A TWAIL Perspective” (2022) 35 Leiden Journal of International Law 29; Mansour Vesali MAHMOUD and Hosna SHEIKHATTAR, “A Call for Rethinking International Arbitration: A TWAIL Perspective on Transnationality and Epistemic Community” (2023) 35 Law and Critique 405; Ntina TZOUVALA, “TWAIL and the ‘Unwilling or Unable’ Doctrine: Continuities and Ruptures” (2015) 109 AJIL Unbound 266; Chhaya BHARDWAJ and Abhinav MEHROTRA, “Crawford, TWAIL, and Sovereign Equality of States: Similarity and Differences” (2022) 40 The Australian Year Book of International Law Online 89; Upendra BAXI, “Disasters, Catastrophes and Oblivion: A TWAIL Perspective” (2021) 2 Yearbook of International Disaster Law Online 72; Endalew ENYEW, “Sailing with TWAIL: A Historical Inquiry into Third World Perspectives on the Law of the Sea” (2022) 21(3) Chinese Journal of International Law 439; Eslava and Pahuja, supra note 13; Anthony ANGHIE, B.S. CHIMNI, Karin MICKELSON, and Obiora OKAFOR, eds., The Third World and International Order: Law, Politics, and Globalization (Leiden: Brill Martinus Nijhoff, 2003). See, also, the collected works of C.H. Alexandrowicz at: Charles Henry ALEXANDROWICZ, The Law of Nations in Global History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017); for a thematic overview of TWAIL scholarship, see: Anghie, supra note 12.

16 Usha NATARAJAN, “TWAIL and the Environment: The State of Nature, the Nature of the State, and the Arab Spring” (2012) 14 Oregon Review of International Law 177.

17 See for e.g. R.P. ANAND, International Law and the Developing Countries: Confrontation or Cooperation? (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1987), at 120.

18 Anghie, supra note 12.

19 Chimni, supra note 13.

20 Antony ANGHIE and B.S. CHIMNI, “Third World Approaches to International Law and Individual Responsibility in Internal Conflicts” (2003) 2(1) Chinese Journal of International Law 77.

21 Arnulf Becker LORCA, “After TWAIL’s Success, What Next? Afterword to the Foreword by Antony Anghie” (2023) 34 European Journal of International Law 779.

22 Okafor, “Newness, Imperialism, and International Legal Reform in Our Time”, supra note 13; Okafor, “Critical Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL)”, supra note 13.

23 Appiagyei-Atua, supra note 13.

24 Ama Ruth FRANCIS, “Global Southerners in the North, in A Gathering Wave: Emerging Legal and Policy Implications of Climate Migration: Essays” (2020) 93 Temple Law Review 689.

25 Anghie and Chimni, supra note 20.

26 Karin MICKELSON, “Beyond a Politics of the Possible: South-North Relations and Climate Justice Symposium – Climate Justice and International Environmental Law: Rethinking the North-South Divide” (2009) 10 Melbourne Journal of International Law 411.

27 See e.g. “Community Forestry Is Central to Bolivia’s Climate Plans, but Bottlenecks Remain- In Conversation with Humberto Gómez Cerveró”, online: Tropenbos International www.tropenbos.org/news/community+forestry+is+central+to+bolivia%E2%80%99s+climate+plans,+but+bottlenecks+remain-+in+conversation+with+humberto+g%C3%B3mez+cerver%C3%B3; “World Bank Carbon Credits to Boost International Carbon Markets”, online: World Bank www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2023/12/01/world-bank-carbon-credits-to-boost-international-carbon-markets

28 “OPEC Rallies Members against Fossil Fuels Phase out at COP 28” Al Jazeera, online: Al Jazeera www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/8/opec-rallies-members-against-fossil-fuels-phase-out-at-cop-28

29 “AOSIS COP28 Press Conference – AOSIS Chair Statement – AOSIS”, online: AOSIS https://www.aosis.org/aosis-cop28-press-conference-aosis-chair-statement/

30 Axel MICHAELOWA and Katharina MICHAELOWA, “BRICS in the International Climate Negotiations”, in Edward D. MANSFIELD and Nita RUDRA, eds., The Political Economy of the BRICS Countries (Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, 2020), 289, online: World Scientific https://worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/9789811202308_0012; “Joint Statement Issued at the BRICS High-Level Meeting on Climate Change”, BRICS Information Centre (30 December 2022), online: University of Toronto www.brics.utoronto.ca/docs/2022/220513-climate.html

31 Tara Nair VAN RYNEVELD and Mine ISLAR, “Coloniality as a Barrier to Climate Action: Hierarchies of Power in a Coal-Based Economy” (2023) 55 Antipode 958; Sara L. SECK, “Home State Responsibility and Local Communities: The Case of Global Mining” (2008) 11 Yale Human Rights & Development Law Journal 177; Sara L. SECK, “Revisiting Transnational Corporations and Extractive Industries: Climate Justice, Feminism, and State Sovereignty” (2016) 26 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 383.

32 Elizabeth CHATTERJEE, “The Asian Anthropocene: Electricity and Fossil Developmentalism” (2020) 79 Journal of Asian Studies 3.

33 “Fossil Fuel per Capita Consumption by Country 2022”, online: Statista www.statista.com/statistics/1302684/per-capita-fossil-fuel-consumption-in-selected-countries/

34 Seck, “Revisiting Transnational Corporations and Extractive Industries”, supra note 31.

35 Peter DAUVERGNE, “The Necessity of Justice for a Fair, Legitimate, and Effective Treaty on Plastic Pollution” (2023) 155 Marine Policy 105785; Tiwonge MZUMARA-GAWA, “Plastic Treaty Talks Must Protect African Countries from Pollution”, Context (29 April 2024) online: Context www.context.news/climate-justice/opinion/plastic-treaty-talks-must-protect-african-countries-from-pollution; Elena GIGLIO, “Extractivism and Its Socio-Environmental Impact in South America. Overview of the ‘Lithium Triangle’” (2021) 5 América Crítica 47; Bárbara JEREZ, Ingrid GARCÉS and Robinson TORRES, “Lithium Extractivism and Water Injustices in the Salar de Atacama, Chile: The Colonial Shadow of Green Electromobility” (2021) 87 Political Geography 102382.

36 For the common position of G77 states and their relevance, see for e.g. “Statement on Behalf of the Group of 77 and China by Mr Ahmadou Sebory Touré, Lead Negotiator, Director, Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests of the Republic Of Guinea, at the Joint Opening Plenary of the COP, CMA, SBSTA and SBI COP26, CMP16, CMA3, SBSTA52-55, SBI52-55”, online: The Group of 77 at the United Nations www.g77.org/statement/getstatement.php?id=211031; María del PILAR BUENO, “Identity-Based Cooperation in the Multilateral Negotiations on Climate Change: The Group of 77 and China” in Cristian LORENZO, ed., Latin America in Times of Global Environmental Change (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020), online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24254-1_5; Antto VIHMA, Yacob MULUGETTA and Sylvia KARLSSON-VINKHUYZEN, “Negotiating Solidarity? The G77 through the Prism of Climate Change Negotiations” (2011) 23 Global Change, Peace & Security 315; Sjur KASA, Anne T. GULLBERG and Gørild HEGGELUND, “The Group of 77 in the International Climate Negotiations: Recent Developments and Future Directions” (2008) 8 (2) International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics 113.

37 Mickelson, supra note 26.

38 Jan ZALASIEWICZ, Mark WILLIAMS, Alan HAYWOOD and Michael ELLIS, “The Anthropocene: A New Epoch of Geological Time?” (2011) 369(1938) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 835, online: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0339; Colin N. WATERS and Simon D. TURNER, “Defining the Onset of the Anthropocene” (2022) 378(6621) Science 706, online: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ade2310

39 Anthony C. FISHER and Frederick M. PETERSON, “The Environment in Economics: A Survey” (1976) 14 Journal of Economic Literature 1; Stefan BAUMGÄRTNER and Martin QUAAS, “What is Sustainability Economics?” (2010) 69 Ecological Economics 445.

40 See for e.g. Gordon J. MACDONALD and Luigi SERTORIO, eds., Global Climate and Ecosystem Change, vol. 240, NATO ASI Series (Boston: Springer US, 1990), online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2483-4; Lindsey E. RUSTAD, “The Response of Terrestrial Ecosystems to Global Climate Change: Towards an Integrated Approach” (2008) 404(2) Science of The Total Environment 222, online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.04.050; Yadvinder MALHI, Janet FRANKLIN, Nathalie SEDDON, Martin SOLAN, Monica G TURNER, Christopher B FIELD, and Nancy KNOWLTON, “Climate Change and Ecosystems: Threats, Opportunities and Solutions” (2020) 375(1794) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 1, online: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0104

41 See generally: Thomas J. CROWLEY and Gerald R. NORTH, “Abrupt Climate Change and Extinction Events in Earth History” (1988) 240(4855) Science 996, online: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.240.4855.996; John HARTE, Annette OSTLING, Jessica L. GREEN, and Ann KINZIG, “Climate Change and Extinction Risk” (2004) 430(6995) Nature 34, online: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02718; Telmo PIEVANI, “The Sixth Mass Extinction: Anthropocene and the Human Impact on Biodiversity” (2014) 25(1) Rendiconti Lincei 85, online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-013-0258-9

42 Robert D. HOLT, “The Microevolutionary Consequences of Climate Change” (1990) 5(9) Trends in Ecology & Evolution 311, online: https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(90)90088-U

43 Ori SHARON, “To Be or Not to Be: State Extinction Through Climate Change” (2021) 51(4) Environmental Law 1041.

44 For various resolutions of the Human Rights Council, “Human Rights Council Resolutions on Human Rights and Climate Change”, online: United Nations www.ohchr.org/en/climate-change/human-rights-council-resolutions-human-rights-and-climate-change. See also: “General Assembly Adopts Resolution Requesting International Court of Justice Provide Advisory Opinion on States’ Obligations Concerning Climate Change”, UN Press (29 March 2023), online: United Nations https://press.un.org/en/2023/ga12497.doc.htm

45 See for e.g. Katherine J. CURTIS and Annemarie SCHNEIDER, “Understanding the Demographic Implications of Climate Change: Estimates of Localized Population Predictions under Future Scenarios of Sea-Level Rise” (2011) 33(1) Population and Environment 28, online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-011-0136-2

46 See for e.g. Alan DUPONT, “The Strategic Implications of Climate Change” (2008) 50(3) Survival 29, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/00396330802173107; John C. PERNETTA, “Impacts of Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise on Small Island States: National and International Responses” (1992) 2(1) Global Environmental Change 19, online: https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-3780(92)90033-4; Sanjay CHATURVEDI and Timothy DOYLE, Climate Terror (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2015), online: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137318954

47 Francesco BOSELLO, Robert J. NICHOLLS, Julie RICHARDS, Roberto ROSON, and Richard S. J. TOL, “Economic Impacts of Climate Change in Europe: Sea-Level Rise” (2012) 112(1) Climatic Change 63, online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0340-1; Benjamin H. STRAUSS, Philip M. ORTON, Klaus BITTERMANN, Maya K. BUCHANAN, Daniel M. GILFORD, Robert E. KOPP, Scott KULP, Chris MASSEY, Hans de MOEL, and Sergey VINOGRADOV, “Economic Damages from Hurricane Sandy Attributable to Sea Level Rise Caused by Anthropogenic Climate Change” (2021) 12(1) Nature Communications 2720, online: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22838-1; Richard S.J. TOL, “The Economic Impacts of Climate Change” (2018) 12(1) Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 4, online: https://doi.org/10.1093/reep/rex027

48 Morey BURNHAM, Claudia RADEL, Zhao MA, and Ann LAUDATI, “Extending a Geographic Lens Towards Climate Justice, Part 1: Climate Change Characterization and Impacts” (2013) 7(3) Geography Compass 239, online: https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12034.; J. SAMSON, D. BERTEAUX, B. J. MCGILL, and M. M. HUMPHRIES, “Geographic Disparities and Moral Hazards in the Predicted Impacts of Climate Change on Human Populations” (2011) 20(4) Global Ecology and Biogeography 532, online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00632.x

49 Nancy TUANA, “Climate Apartheid: The Forgetting of Race in the Anthropocene” (2019) 7(1) Critical Philosophy of Race 1, online: https://doi.org/10.5325/critphilrace.7.1.0001

50 Irene DANKELMAN, Gender and Climate Change: An Introduction (London: Routledge, 2010); Sherilyn MACGREGOR, “‘Gender and Climate Change’: From Impacts to Discourses” (2010) 6(2) Journal of the Indian Ocean Region 223, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/19480881.2010.536669.; Farhana SULTANA, “Gendering Climate Change: Geographical Insights” (2014) 66(3) The Professional Geographer 372, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2013.821730

51 See for e.g. Upendra BAXI, “Towards a Climate Change Justice Theory?” (2016) 7(1) Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 7, online: https://doi.org/10.4337/jhre.2016.01.01; Sam ADELMAN and Louis KOTZÉ, “Introduction: Climate Justice in the Anthropocene” (2021) 11(1) Oñati Socio-Legal Series 30.

52 Benito MÜLLER, “Varieties of Distributive Justice in Climate Change” (2001) 48(2) Climatic Change 273, online: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010775501271; Lukas H. MEYER and Dominic ROSER, “Distributive Justice and Climate Change. The Allocation of Emission Rights” (2006) 28(2) Analyse & Kritik 223, online: https://doi.org/10.1515/auk-2006-0207; Elkanah O. BABATUNDE, “Distributive Justice in the Age of Climate Change” (2020) 33(2) Canadian Journal of Law & Jurisprudence 263, online: https://doi.org/10.1017/cjlj.2020.13

53 See generally: Derek BELL, “Global Climate Justice, Historic Emissions, and Excusable Ignorance” (2011) 94(3) The Monist 391; Lukas H. MEYER and Roserb DOMINIC, “Climate Justice and Historical Emissions” in Lukas H. MEYER ed., Intergenerational Justice (London: Routledge, 2012), 26; Janna THOMPSON, “Historical Responsibility and Climate Change” in Lukas H. MEYER and Pranay SANKLECHA, eds., Climate Justice and Historical Emissions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 46, online: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781107706835.003

54 Petra TSCHAKERT, David SCHLOSBERG, Danielle CELERMAJER, Lauren RICKARDS, Christine WINTER, Mathias THALER, Makere STEWART-HARAWIRA, and Blanche VERLIE, “Multispecies Justice: Climate-Just Futures with, for and beyond Humans” (2021) 12(2) WIREs Climate Change 1, online: https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.699; Danielle CELERMAJER, Winter David SCHLOSBERG, Lauren RICKARDS, Makere STEWART-HARAWIRA, Mathias THALER, Petra TSCHAKERT, Blanche VERLIE and Christine J. WINTER, “Multispecies Justice: Theories, Challenges, and a Research Agenda for Environmental Politics” in Graeme HAYES, Sikina JINNAH, Prakash KASHWAN, David M. KONISKY, Sherilyn MACGREGOR, John M. MEYER, and Anthony R. ZITO (eds.), Trajectories in Environmental Politics (London: Routledge, 2022), 119, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2020.1827608; Helen KOPNINA, “Anthropocentrism and Post‐Humanism” in Hilary CALLAN, ed., The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology, 1st ed. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2019), 1, online: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118924396.wbiea2387; Ximena SIERRA-CAMARGO, “The Ecocentric Turn of Environmental Justice in Colombia” (2019) 30(2) King’s Law Journal 224, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09615768.2019.1645433

55 Stephen M. GARDINER, “Ethics and Climate Change: An Introduction” (2010) 1(1) WIREs Climate Change 54, online: https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.16.; David HEYD, “Climate Ethics, Affirmative Action, and Unjust Enrichment”, in Lukas H. MEYER and Pranay SANKLECHA, eds., Climate Justice and Historical Emissions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 22, online: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781107706835.002

56 Darrell MOELLENDORF, “Climate Change and Global Justice” (2012) 3(2) WIREs Climate Change 131, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.158; Baxi, supra note 51; Paul CLEMENTS, “Rawlsian Ethics of Climate Change” (2015) 23(4) Critical Criminology 461, online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-015-9293-4; Tahseen JAFRY, Routledge Handbook of Climate Justice (London: Routledge, 2018).

57 “Climate Equity or Climate Justice? More than a Question of Terminology” International Union for Conservation of Nature (19 March 2021), online: IUCN www.iucn.org/news/world-commission-environmental-law/202103/climate-equity-or-climate-justice-more-a-question-terminology; Robert R. KUEHN, “A Taxonomy of Environmental Justice”, (2000) 30(9) Environmental Law Reporter 10681; Lauren GIFFORD and Chris KNUDSON, “Climate Finance Justice: International Perspectives on Climate Policy, Social Justice, and Capital” (2020) 161 Climatic Change 243.

58 “Founex Report on Development and Environment Submitted by a Panel of Experts Convened by the Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 4–12 June 1971, Founex, Switzerland” (1970) 39 International Conciliation 7.

59 Ibid., at 10.

60 Malavika RAO, “A TWAIL Perspective on Loss and Damage from Climate Change: Reflections from Indira Gandhi’s Speech at Stockholm” (2022) 12 Asian Journal of International Law 63.

61 Julia DEHM, “Indigenous Peoples and REDD + Safeguards: Rights as Resistance or as Disciplinary Inclusion in the Green Economy” (2016) 7 Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 170.

62 R.P. ANAND, “Valedictory Address” in R.P. ANAND, Rahmatullah KHAN and S. BHATT, eds., Law, Science and Environment, 1st ed. (New Delhi: Lancers Books, 1987), 266.

63 Anil AGARWAL and Sunita NARAIN, Global Warming in an Unequal World: A Case of Environmental Colonialism (New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 1991).

64 Ibid., at 9.

65 Vandana SHIVA, “Globalism, Biodiversity and The Third World” in Edward GOLDSMITH, Martin Khor, Helena Norberg-Hodge, and Vandana Shiva (eds.), The Future of Progress: Reflections on Environment and Development, 1st ed. (Totnes: Green Books, 1992), 50.

66 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 9 May 1992, 1771 U.N.T.S. 107 (entered into force 21 March 1994) [UNFCCC].

67 Henry SHUE, “Subsistence Emissions and Luxury Emissions” (1993) 15 Law & Policy 39.

68 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 11 December 1997, 2303 U.N.T.S. 162 (entered into force 16 February 2005) [Kyoto Protocol]; see Arts. 6 and 17.

69 James FAIRHEAD, Melissa LEACH and Ian SCOONES, “Green Grabbing: A New Appropriation of Nature?” (2012) 39 The Journal of Peasant Studies 237; Heidi BACHRAM, “Climate Fraud and Carbon Colonialism: The New Trade in Greenhouse” (2004) 15 Capitalism Nature Socialism 5; Arnim SCHEIDEL and Courtney WORK, “Forest Plantations and Climate Change Discourses: New Powers of ‘Green’ Grabbing in Cambodia” (2018) 77 Land Use Policy 9; Larry LOHMANN, Carbon Trading: A Critical Conversation on Climate Change, Privatization and Power (Uppsala: Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation, 2006); Steffen BÖHM and Siddhartha DABHI, Upsetting the Offset: The Political Economy of Carbon Markets (London: MayFly Books, 2009).

70 Ramachandra GUHA, “The Environmentalism of the Poor” in Ramachandra GUHA and Joan Martínez ALIER, eds., Varieties of Environmentalism: Essays North and South, 1st ed. (London: Routledge, 1997), 3. Guha ends this chapter with an interesting observation about the difference between environmentalism in Global North and South: “‘No Humanity without Nature!’, the epitaph of the Northern environmentalist, is here answered by the equally compelling slogan ‘No Nature without Social Justice!’”.

71 Chhatrapati SINGH, Common Property and Common Poverty: India’s Forests, Forest Dwellers and the Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).

72 Ibid., at 7.

73 For an overview, see: Sumudu ATAPATTU and Carmen G. GONZALEZ, “The North–South Divide in International Environmental Law: Framing the Issues” in Carmen G. GONZALEZ and others, eds., International Environmental Law and the Global South (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 1, online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107295414.002; Carmen G. GONZALEZ and Sumudu ATAPATTU, “International Environmental Law, Environmental Justice, and the Global South” (2016) 26 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 229.

74 Natarajan, supra note 16.

75 Upendra BAXI, “What May the ‘Third World’ Expect from International Law?” (2006) 27 Third World Quarterly 713.

76 Karin MICKELSON, “South, North, International Environmental Law, and International Environmental Lawyers” (2000) 11 Yearbook of International Environmental Law 52.

77 Ibid., at 77.

78 See for e.g. Usha NATARAJAN, “Environmental Justice in the Global South” in Carmen G. GONZALEZ, Sara L. SECK and Sumudu A. ATAPATTU, eds., The Cambridge Handbook of Environmental Justice and Sustainable Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021); Usha NATARAJAN, “Climate Justice” in Mariana Valverde, Kamari M. Clarke, Eve Darian Smith, and Prabha Kotiswaran (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Law and Society (Routledge, 2021).

79 Usha NATARAJAN, “Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL) and the Environment”, in Andreas PHILIPPOPOULOS-MIHALOPOULOS and Victoria BROOKS eds.), Research Methods in Environmental Law (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2017), 207 at 227, online: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781784712570.00016

80 Natarajan, supra note 16, at 189.

81 See for e.g. Irving M. MINTZER and J. Amber LEONARD, eds., Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). The book provides several “insider” accounts of the negotiations, with interesting, nuanced, and differing perspectives by each contributor.

82 Daniel BODANSKY, Jutta BRUNNÉE and Lavanya RAJAMANI, “Evolution of the United Nations Climate Regime”, in International Climate Change Law, 1st ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).

83 The end of the agenda-setting phase or the constitutional phase does not mean that the international climate regime has been finalised or all relevant structures created. In fact, continuing negotiations on various issues of climate change such as mitigation, adaptation, loss and damage, climate finance, etc., often mean that simultaneous negotiations may be going on which may be at different stages, depending upon the issue concerned.

84 See generally: Edith Brown WEISS, “International Environmental Law: Contemporary Issues and the Emergence of a New World Order Symposium: International Law for a New World Order” (1992) 81 Georgetown Law Journal 675; Edith Brown WEISS, “The Evolution of International Environmental Law” (2011) 54 Japanese Yearbook of International Law 1; Peter SAND, The History and Origin of International Environmental Law (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2015).

85 Weiss, “The Evolution of International Environmental Law”, supra note 84.

86 Alexandre KISS and Dinah SHELTON, “Origin and Evolution of International Environmental Law”, in International Environmental Law (Leiden: Brill Nijhoff, 2004). For a critique of the traditional account, see: Mickelson, supra note 76 at 55.

87 Weiss, “The Evolution of International Environmental Law”, supra note 84.

88 See for e.g. Towards a New Trade Policy for Development, Report by the Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), finalized by Raul PREBISCH, UN Doc. E/CONF.46/3 (1964); Georg SCHWARZENBERGER, “The Principles and Standards of International Economic Law (Volume 117)” in Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law (Leiden: Brill, 1966); Andre Gunder FRANK, “The Development of Underdevelopment” (1966) 18(4) Monthly Review 17, online: https://doi.org/10.14452/MR-018-04-1966-08_3; Samir AMIN, “Self-Reliance and the New International Economic Order” (1977) 1 Monthly Review 1; Samir AMIN, “New International Economic Order and Strategy for the Use of Financial Surpluses of Developing Countries” (1979) 4 Alternatives 477.

89 Maurice FLORY, “Adapting International Law to the Development of the Third World” (1982) 26 Journal of African Law 12; Lavanya RAJAMANI, “Differential Treatment in International Law” in Lavanya RAJAMANI ed., Differential Treatment in International Environmental Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 13.

90 Flory, ibid.; Rajamani, ibid.; Mohammed BEDJAOUI, Towards a New International Economic Order (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979).

91 United Nations General Assembly (6th Special Session), “Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order” (1974) A/RES/3201(S-VI).

92 Ibid.

93 UN General Assembly (6th Special Session), “Programme of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order” (1974) A/RES/3202(S-VI).

94 Mickelson, supra note 76.

95 Lavanya RAJAMANI, “The Changing Fortunes of Differential Treatment in the Evolution of International Environmental Law” (2012) 88 International Affairs 605, online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01091.x

96 Mahesh RANGARAJAN, “Striving for a Balance: Nature, Power, Science and India’s Indira Gandhi, 1917–1984” (2009) 7 Conservation and Society 299; Rajamani, supra note 95 at 607.

97 Ibid.; “The Cocoyoc Declaration” (1975) 29 International Organization 893.

98 See: Spencer R. WEART, The Discovery of Global Warming: Revised and Expanded Edition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008).

99 Scripps Institution of Oceanography, “The Keeling Curve”, UC San Diego, online: UC San Diego https://keelingcurve.ucsd.edu

100 Weiss, “International Environmental Law”, supra note 84.

101 Daniel BODANSKY, “The History of the Global Climate Change Regime”, in Urs LUTERBACHER and Detlef F. SPRINZ, eds., Global Climate Policy: Actors, Concepts, and Enduring Challenges, 1st ed. (MIT Press, 2001), 23.

102 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and others, Report of the International Conference of the Assessment of the Role of Carbon Dioxide and of Other Greenhouse Gases in Climate Variations and Associated Impacts (Geneva: WMO, 1986).

103 WMO Secretariat, Environment Canada, United Nations Environment Programme, “Proceedings, World Conference, Toronto, Canada June 27–30, 1988: The Changing Atmosphere: Implications for Global Security = Actes, Conférence Mondiale, Toronto, Canada, 27–30 Juin 1988 : L’atmosphère En Évolution: Implications Pour La Sécurité Du Globe.” Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization (1989), online: United Nations https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/106359

104 “Hague Declaration on the Environment” (1989) 28 International Legal Materials 1308. This Conference was initiated by France, the Netherlands, and Norway and the declaration was signed by 24 states: Australia, Brazil, Canada, Cote d’Ivoire, Egypt, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Malta, Norway, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Senegal, Spain, Sweden, Tunisia, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe.

105 Sumudu ATAPATTU, “Climate Change, International Environmental Law Principles, and the North-South Divide” (2016) 26 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 247.

106 Ibid., at 251.

107 Chandrashekhar DASGUPTA, “The Climate Change Negotiations”, in Irving M. MINTZER and J. Amber LEONARD, eds., Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), online: www.cambridge.org/core/books/negotiating-climate-change/climate-change-negotiations/42C4013E8E035932BBCF6114ADFA24A1; Atiq RAHMAN and Annie RONCEREL, “A View from the Ground Up”, in Irving M MINTZER and J. Amber LEONARD, eds., Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 239s, online: www.cambridge.org/core/books/negotiating-climate-change/view-from-the-ground-up/DC3232716D99A7C6DA6D8F9AE1D2B3D3

108 Youba SOKONA, Adil NAJAM and Saleemul HUQ, “Climate Change and Sustainable Development: Views from the South” World Summit on Sustainable Development Opinion Papers, online: International Institute for Environment and Development www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/11002IIED.pdf

109 Adil NAJAM, Saleemul HUQ and Youba SOKONA, “Climate Negotiations Beyond Kyoto: Developing Countries Concerns and Interests” (2003) 3 Climate Policy 221.

110 Karin MICKELSON, “Leading towards a Level Playing Field, Repaying Ecological Debt, or Making Environmental Space: Three Stories about International Environmental Cooperation” (2005) 43 Osgoode Hall Law Journal 137.

111 Bachram, supra note 69.

112 Lohmann, supra note 69.

113 Carmen GONZALEZ, “Environmental Justice, Human Rights, and the Global South” (2015) 13 Santa Clara Journal of International Law 151.

114 Ibid.

115 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) , Second World Climate Conference: Conference Statement (Geneva: WMO, 1990), para 2.8.

116 Katharina MICHAELOWA and Chandreyee NAMHATA, “Climate Finance as Development Aid”, in Axel MICHAELOWA and Anne-Kathrin SACHERER (eds.), Handbook of International Climate Finance (Chetenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2022), 62, online: www.elgaronline.com/edcollchap/book/9781784715656/book-part-9781784715656-9.xml

117 UNFCCC, supra note 66, Art. 4.5.

118 Ibid., Art. 11.

119 “Summary Report 28 March–7 April 1995”, International Institute for Sustainable Development – Earth Negotiations Bulletin, online: IISD http://enb.iisd.org/events/unfccc-cop-1/summary-report-28-march-7-april-1995

120 Kyoto Protocol, supra note 68, Arts. 6 (Joint Implementation), 12 (Clean Development Mechanism), and 17 (emissions trading).

121 Ibid., Art. 6.

122 Ibid., Art. 12.

123 Heidi BACHRAM, “Climate Fraud and Carbon Colonialism: The New Trade in Greenhouse Gases” (2004) 15(4) Capitalism Nature Socialism 5, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/1045575042000287299; Julia DEHM, “Carbon Colonialism or Climate Justice: Interrogating the International Climate Regime from a TWAIL Perspective” (2016) 33(3) Windsor Yearbook of Access to Justice 129, online: https://doi.org/10.22329/wyaj.v33i3.4893

124 Ibid.

125 See for e.g. Dehm, supra note 61, at 170–217; Marie BLÉVIN, “The Clean Development Mechanism and the Poverty Issue” (2011) 41(3) Environmental Law 777.

126 Decision 3/CP.4: Review of the Financial Mechanism, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its fourth session, held at Buenos Aires from 2 to 14 November 1998. Addendum. Part two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its fourth session, FCCC/CP/1998/16/Add.1.

127 See Decision 7/CP. 7: Funding under the Convention, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its seventh session, held at Marrakesh from 29 October to 10 November 2001. Addendum. Part Two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties, Volume I, FCCC/CP/2001/13/Add.1.

128 Ibid.

129 Navroz K. DUBASH, “Copenhagen: Climate of Mistrust” (2009) 44 Economic and Political Weekly 8.

130 Daniel BODANSKY, “The Copenhagen Climate Change Conference: A Post-Mortem” (2010) 104(2) American Journal of International Law 230, online: https://doi.org/10.5305/amerjintelaw.104.2.0230; Dehm, supra note 123.

131 Lavanya RAJAMANI, “The Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility and the Balance of Commitments under the Climate Regime” (2000) 9 Review of European Community & International Environmental Law 120.

132 Report of the Conference of the Parties on its fifteenth session, held in Copenhagen from 7 to 19 December 2009. Addendum. Part Two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its fifteenth session. FCCC/CP/2009/11/Add.1.

133 See generally: Bodansky, supra note 130; Ian M. MCGREGOR, “Disenfranchisement of Countries and Civil Society at COP-15 in Copenhagen” (2011) 11(1) Global Environmental Politics 1, online: https://doi.org/10.1162/GLEP_a_00039; Peter CHRISTOFF, “Cold Climate in Copenhagen: China and the United States at COP15” (2010) 19(4) Environmental Politics 637, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2010.489718

134 Bodansky, supra note 130.

135 Kushal Pal SINGH YADAV, Pradip SAHA, Jaisel VADAGAMA, Arnab Pratim DUTTA, and Chandra BHUSHAN, “Copenhagen According to USA”, Down to Earth (15 January 2010) online: Down to Earth www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/copenhagen-according-to-usa-696

136 See for a commentary on the changes in the principle of differentiation after Copenhagen: Rajamani, supra note 95.

137 Singh Yadav, Saha, Vadagama, Dutta, and Bhushan, supra note 135.

138 Lavanya RAJAMANI, “Copenhagen Accord: Neither Fish nor Fowl”, Centre for Policy Research (8 February 2010) online: CPR https://cprindia.org/journalarticles/copenhagen-accord-neither-fish-nor-fowl/

139 Jeffrey MCGEE and Jens STEFFEK, “The Copenhagen Turn in Global Climate Governance and the Contentious History of Differentiation in International Law” (2016) 28(1) Journal of Environmental Law 37.

140 See Lavanya RAJAMANI, “Ambition and Differentiation in the 2015 Paris Agreement: Interpretative Possibilities and Underlying Politics” (2016) 65(2) International & Comparative Law Quarterly 493, online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589316000130; Christina VOIGT and Felipe FERREIRA, “Differentiation in the Paris Agreement” (2016) 6(1–2) Climate Law 58, online: https://doi.org/10.1163/18786561-00601004

141 For a discussion on evolution of climate change negotiations, see generally: Bodansky, Brunnée and Rajamani, supra note 82 at 96.

142 Regarding the gross shortfall of adaptation finance and the urgent need of the developing countries, see: UNEP, “Adaptation Gap Report 2021,” UNEP (31 October 2021), online: UNEP www.unep.org/resources/adaptation-gap-report-2021; Mohamed BAKARR, “Climate Finance and the Urgency for Adaptation in the Developing World”, Global Environment Facility (12 May 2021), online: Global Environment Facility www.thegef.org/newsroom/blog/climate-finance-and-urgency-adaptation-developing-world

143 Report of the Conference of the Parties on its sixteenth session, held in Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010, Part Two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its sixteenth session, Decisions adopted by the Conference of the Parties, FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1.

144 Jocelyn TIMPERLEY, “The Broken $100-Billion Promise of Climate Finance – and How to Fix It” (2021) 598(7881) Nature 400–2, online: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-02846-3

145 Dehm, supra note 123.

146 Carola BETZOLD, “Business Insiders and Environmental Outsiders? Advocacy Strategies in International Climate Change Negotiations” (2013) 2 Interest Groups & Advocacy 302; John C.V. PEZZEY, “The Influence of Lobbying on Climate Policies; or, Why the World Might Fail” (2014) 19 Environment and Development Economics 329; Alicia PAWLUK and Isobel BRAITHWAITE, “Corporate Influence on Climate Negotiations” (2014) 348 British Medical Journal g2616; Leslie SKLAIR, “The Corporate Capture of Sustainable Development and Its Transformation into a ‘Good Anthropocene’ Historical Bloc” (2019) 19 Civitas – Revista de Ciências Sociais 296.

147 See for e.g. Adam LUCAS, “Investigating Networks of Corporate Influence on Government Decision-Making: The Case of Australia’s Climate Change and Energy Policies” (2021) 81 Energy Research & Social Science 102271; Himangana GUPTA, Ravinder Kumar KOHLI and Amrik Singh AHLUWALIA, “Mapping ‘Consistency’ in India’s Climate Change Position: Dynamics and Dilemmas of Science Diplomacy” (2015) 44 Ambio 592.

148 Dehm, supra note 123, at 154, 158.

149 Ibid., at 151–2.

150 Paris Agreement to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 12 December 2015, T.I.A.S. No. 16-1104, (entered into force 4 November 2016) [Paris Agreement].

151 Rajamani, supra note 140 at 493.

152 Decision 19/CMA.1: Matters relating to Article 14 of the Paris Agreement and paragraphs 99–101 of decision 1/CP.21, Report of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement on the third part of its first session, held in Katowice from 2 to 15 December 2018, FCCC/PA/CMA/2018/3/Add.2.

153 Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, 2023, online: https://doi.org/10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647

154 Daniel BODANSKY, “The Forever Negotiations”, EJIL: Talk! (19 December 2022), online: EJIL www.ejiltalk.org/the-forever-negotiations/; Daniel BODANSKY and Lavanya RAJAMANI, “The Issues That Never Die” (2018) 12 Carbon & Climate Law Review 184.

155 Daniel BODANSKY, Jutta BRUNNÉE, and Lavanya RAJAMANI, International Climate Change Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).

156 Bodansky and Rajamani, supra note 154, at 184–90.

157 This concept refers to the harm (usually irreversible) caused by anthropogenic climate change (through sudden extreme disasters or slow-onset events) which could not be mitigated or adapted to, such as loss of islands due to rise in sea levels. See Sam ADELMAN, “Human Rights in the Paris Agreement: Too Little, Too Late?” (2018) 7 Transnational Environmental Law 17; Rachel JAMES, Friederike OTTO, Hannah PARKER, Emily BOYD, Rosalind CORNFORTH, Daniel MITCHELL, and Myles ALLEN, “Characterizing Loss and Damage from Climate Change” (2014) 4 Nature Climate Change 938; Erin ROBERTS and Mark PELLING, “Climate Change-Related Loss and Damage: Translating the Global Policy Agenda for National Policy Processes” (2018) 10 Climate and Development 4.

158 Lisa VANHALA and Cecilie HESTBAEK, “Framing Climate Change Loss and Damage in UNFCCC Negotiations” (2016) 16 Global Environmental Politics 111; Sam ADELMAN, “Climate Justice, Loss and Damage and Compensation for Small Island Developing States” (2016) 7 Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 32; Erin ROBERTS and Saleemul HUQ, “Coming Full Circle: The History of Loss and Damage under the UNFCCC” (2015) 8 International Journal of Global Warming 141.

159 Decision 2/CP.19, Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage Associated with Climate Change Impacts, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its nineteenth session, held in Warsaw from 11 to 23 November 2013, Addendum Part two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its nineteenth session, FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1.

160 Ibid.

161 Emma LEES, “Responsibility and Liability for Climate Loss and Damage after Paris”, in Joanna DEPLEDGE, Jorge E. VIÑUALES, Emma LEES, David REINER (eds.), Climate Policy after the 2015 Paris Climate Conference (London: Routledge, 2021).

162 Decision 1/CP.21 Adoption of the Paris Agreement, para. 7, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its twenty-first session, held in Paris from 30 November to 13 December 2015, Addendum Part two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its twenty-first session, FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1.

163 Adelman, supra note 157.

164 “Summary Report 6–20 November 2022”, online: IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin http://enb.iisd.org/sharm-el-sheikh-climate-change-conference-cop27-summary

165 Arthur WYNS, “COP27 Establishes Loss and Damage Fund to Respond to Human Cost of Climate Change” (2023) 7 The Lancet Planetary Health e21; Angus William NAYLOR and James FORD, “Vulnerability and Loss and Damage Following the COP27 of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change” (2023) 23 Regional Environmental Change 38.

166 Ibid.

167 Paris Agreement, supra note 150.

168 Ibid., Preamble.

169 Ibid., Art. 9.

170 Ibid., Art. 9(6).

171 Ibid., Art. 11.

172 Lavanya RAJAMANI, “The 2015 Paris Agreement: Interplay Between Hard, Soft and Non-Obligations” (2016) 28(2) Journal of Environmental Law 337, online: https://doi.org/10.1093/jel/eqw015

173 UNFCCC, supra note 66 Art. 11.

174 Rajamani, supra note 172.

175 David ROSSATI and Alexander ZAHAR, “Governing International Climate Finance and Investment: The Role of Law” in Alexander ZAHAR, ed., Research Handbook on the Law of the Paris Agreement (Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc, 2024) 296 online: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800886742.00020

176 Report of the Conference of the Parties on its twenty-sixth session, held in Glasgow from 31 October to 13 November 2021. Addendum Part two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its twenty-sixth session, FCCC/CP/2021/12/Add.1.

177 Rossati and Zahar, supra note 175; Alexander ZAHAR, “Legal Obligations of States Relating to Climate Finance”, in Climate Change Finance and International Law (London: Routledge, 2016).

178 Ibid.

179 Steven VANDERHEIDEN, “Justice and Climate Finance: Differentiating Responsibility in the Green Climate Fund” (2015) 50(1) The International Spectator 31, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2015.985523

180 “Biennial Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows”, UNFCCC online: UNFCCC https://unfccc.int/topics/climate-finance/resources/biennial-assessment-and-overview-of-climate-finance-flows

181 OECD, Aggregate Trends of Climate Finance Provided and Mobilised by Developed Countries in 2013–2020 (Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2022), online: www.oecd-ilibrary.org/finance-and-investment/aggregate-trends-of-climate-finance-provided-and-mobilised-by-developed-countries-in-2013-2020_d28f963c-en; Amitabh SINHA, “Let us clearly define climate finance, says India at COP28 meet” Indian Express (9 December 2023), online: Indian Express https://indianexpress.com/article/world/climate-change/let-us-clearly-define-climate-finance-says-india-at-cop28-meet-9060555/; See also: Dipak DASGUPTA, Rajasree RAY, Shweta, and Salam Shyamsunder SINGH, “Climate Change Finance, Analysis of a Recent OECD Report: Some Credible Facts Needed”, Climate Change Finance Unit, Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, Discussion Paper, 27 November 2015, online: https://dea.gov.in/sites/default/files/ClimateChangeOEFDReport%20%281%29.pdf; Vanderheiden, supra note 179.

182 Anis CHOWDHURY and Kwame Sundaram JOMO, “The Climate Finance Conundrum” (2022) 65(1) Development 29, online: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41301-022-00329-0

183 Ibid.

184 OECD, supra note 181.

185 Philippe LE HOUÉROU, “Climate Funds: Time to Clean Up” (Clermont-Ferrand: Fondation pour les études et recherches sur le développement international (FERDI), 2023), online: https://ferdi.fr/en/publications/climate-funds-time-to-clean-up

186 OECD, supra note 181.

187 See for e.g. Saturnino M. BORRAS, Jennifer C. FRANCO, Sergio GÓMEZ, Cristóbal KAY, and Max SPOOR, “Land Grabbing in Latin America and the Caribbean” (2012) 39(3–4) The Journal of Peasant Studies 845, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2012.679931; Arnim SCHEIDEL and Courtney WORK, supra note 69; Diana OJEDA, “Green Pretexts: Ecotourism, Neoliberal Conservation and Land Grabbing in Tayrona National Natural Park, Colombia” in James FAIRHEAD, Melissa LEACH, and Ian SCOONES (eds.), Green Grabbing: A New Appropriation of Nature (London: Routledge, 2013); Esteve CORBERA, Carol HUNSBERGER, and Chayan VADDHANAPHUTI, “Climate Change Policies, Land Grabbing and Conflict: Perspectives from Southeast Asia” (2017) 38(3) Canadian Journal of Development Studies / Revue Canadienne d’études Du Développement 297, online: https://doi.org/10.1080/02255189.2017.1343413

188 See generally: Bachram, supra note 69; Dehm, supra note 61; Dehm, supra note 123; Rebecca NAVARRO, “Climate Finance and Neo-Colonialism: Exposing Hidden Dynamics” in Corrine CASH and Larry A. SWATUK, eds., The Political Economy of Climate Finance: Lessons from International Development, International Political Economy Series (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022), 179, online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12619-2_8

189 Ethan B. KAPSTEIN, “Fairness Considerations in World Politics: Lessons from International Trade Negotiations” (2008) 123 Political Science Quarterly 229.

190 Rorden WILKINSON, Erin HANNAH and James SCOTT, “The WTO in Bali: What MC9 Means for the Doha Development Agenda and Why It Matters” (2014) 35 Third World Quarterly 1032.

191 For application of the Special and Differential Treatment principles, see: Clara WEINHARDT and Till SCHÖFER, “Differential Treatment for Developing Countries in the WTO: The Unmaking of the North–South Distinction in a Multipolar World” (2022) 43 Third World Quarterly 74.

192 Robert FALKNER, Hannes STEPHAN and John VOGLER, “International Climate Policy after Copenhagen: Towards a ‘Building Blocks’ Approach” (2010) 1 Global Policy 252.

193 André GORZ, Strategy for Labor: A Radical Proposal (Boston: Beacon Press, 1967). Gorz identifies three features of non-reformist reforms: first, it pushes for systemic changes, beyond the existing system and the “balance of profit”, second, it seeks to decentralise power away from economic elites, and third, it is undertaken in dynamic phases within a process of struggle.

194 Emilia BELLIVEAU, James ROWE and Jessica DEMPSEY, “Fossil Fuel Divestment, Non-Reformist Reforms, and Anti-Capitalist Strategy” in William K. Carroll, ed., Regime of Obstruction: How Corporate Power Blocks Energy Democracy (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: Athabasca University Press, 2021) 453.

195 Guha, supra note 70.

196 For a discussion on global social movements linking the “transnational oppressed classes” in the Global North and South, see generally: B.S. CHIMNI, “International Institutions Today: An Imperial Global State in the Making” (2004) 15 European Journal of International Law 1; B.S. CHIMNI, “Crisis and International Law: A Third World Approaches to International Law Perspective”, in Makane Moïse MBENGUE and Jean d’ASPREMONT, eds., Crisis Narratives in International Law (Leiden: Brill Nijhoff, 2022), 40.

197 Amna A. AKBAR, “Non-Reformist Reforms and Struggles over Life, Death, and Democracy” (2022) 132 Yale Law Journal 2497.

198 As noted in previous sections, TWAIL would not regard climate change as fundamentally separate from discourses on development, human rights etc. and would consider the climate negotiations as a part of an overall effort to reform extant global order (including negotiations in areas of global health, human rights, law of the seas, and international economic law). However, considering these linkages are beyond the limited scope of this chapter.

199 Joeri ROGELJ, Drew SHINDELL, and Kejun JIANG, “Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5°C in the Context of Sustainable Development”, in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Global Warming of 1.5°C: IPCC Special Report on Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5°C above Pre-industrial Levels in Context of Strengthening Response to Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022) 93.

200 See for e.g. Christina VOIGT, “The Power of the Paris Agreement in International Climate Litigation” (2023) 32 Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law 237; Lavanya RAJAMANI, Louise JEFFERY, Niklas HÖHNE, Frederic HANS, Alyssa GLASS, Gaurav GANTI, and Andreas GEIGES, “National ‘Fair Shares’ in Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions within the Principled Framework of International Environmental Law” (2021) 21 Climate Policy 983; Maria Antonia TIGRE, “The ‘Fair Share’ of Climate Mitigation: Can Litigation Increase National Ambition for Brazil?” (2023) 16(1) Journal of Human Rights Practice 32.

201 Request for Advisory Opinion transmitted to the Court pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 77/276 of 29 March 2023, Obligations of States with respect to Climate Change, Letter by the Secretary General of the United Nations to the President of the International Court of Justice, 12 April 2023, 2023 General List No. 187, online: ICJ www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/187/187-20230412-app-01-00-en.pdf

202 Request for an Advisory Opinion Submitted by the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law, Advisory Opinion of 21 May 2024, [2024] International Tribunal on the Law of the Seas, Case No. 31.

203 Ibid., at 82. The findings of ITLOS that are most relevant to developing countries include paragraph 229:

The Tribunal considers that while the obligation under article 194, paragraph 1, of the Convention does not refer to the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities as such, it contains some elements common to this principle. Thus, the scope of the measures under this provision, in particular those measures to reduce anthropogenic GHG emissions causing marine pollution, may differ between developed States and developing States. At the same time, it is not only for developed States to take action, even if they should “continue taking the lead”. All States must make mitigation efforts.

In paragraph 339, the Tribunal also notes that “articles 202 and 203 of the Convention set out specific obligations to assist developing States, in particular vulnerable developing States, in their efforts to address marine pollution from anthropogenic GHG emissions”.

204 Florian WEILER, “Determinants of Bargaining Success in the Climate Change Negotiations” (2012) 12 Climate Policy 552.

205 Oral submissions of Timor-Leste, in Request for an Advisory Opinion Submitted by the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law, Public sitting held on Wednesday, 20 September 2023, at 10 a.m., at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Hamburg, President Albert J. Hoffmann presiding, Verbatim Record, ITLOS/PV.23/C31/14 (20 September 2023), at 5, online: www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/cases/31/Oral_proceedings/ITLOS_PV23_C31_14_E.pdf

206 Ibid., at 19.

207 Gerardo S. MARTINEZ, Jacob Ipsen HANSEN, Karen Holm OLSEN, Emmanuel Kofi ACKOM, James Arthur HASELIP, Olivier Bois von KURSK, and Maria Bekker-Nielsen DUNBAR, “Delegation Size and Equity in Climate Negotiations: An Exploration of Key Issues” (2019) 10 Carbon Management 431.

208 Ibid.

209 See for e.g. Jonathan W. KUYPER, Björn-Ola LINNÉR and Heike SCHROEDER, “Non-State Actors in Hybrid Global Climate Governance: Justice, Legitimacy, and Effectiveness in a Post-Paris Era” (2018) 9 WIREs Climate Change e497; Karin BÄCKSTRAND and Jonathan W. KUYPER, “The Democratic Legitimacy of Orchestration: The UNFCCC, Non-State Actors, and Transnational Climate Governance” (2017) 26 Environmental Politics 764; Karin BÄCKSTRAND, Jonathan W. KUYPER, Björn-Ola LINNÉR, and Eva LÖVBRAND, “Non-State Actors in Global Climate Governance: From Copenhagen to Paris and Beyond” (2017) 26 Environmental Politics 561.

210 “On This Day: ‘No Taxation without Representation!’”, National Constitution Center, online: “On This Day: ‘No Taxation without Representation!’”, National Constitution Center https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/no-taxation-without-representation