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Must International Legal Pedagogy Remain Eurocentric?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 May 2021

Mohsen AL ATTAR
Mohsen AL ATTAR*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Law, University of the West Indies, [email protected]
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Abstract

Mainstream international law is Eurocentric. Throughout the past half millennia, no territory beyond Europe was safe from jus gentium's striking capability to legitimize the intrusion of European civilizational precepts. Beginning with the Americas but quickly shifting to Africa and Asia, each continent was a battleground for the penetration of a provincial knowledge system. In this paper, I explore the implications of Eurocentrism for international legal pedagogy. While textbook authors now pay homage to other civilizations, their effusions are ornamental only. Instead of supporting epistemological equivalency, they centre European international law throughout their works, exorcising the brutalities of European history that generated the law in question. After setting out the dilemma, I outline three approaches towards transforming international legal pedagogy that capitalize on the decolonization movement. Each method builds on the premise that, without epistemic diversity, legal pedagogy will continue to rationalize European international law's predatory impulse.

Type
Articles
Information
Asian Journal of International Law , Volume 11 , Issue 1 , January 2021 , pp. 176 - 206
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

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Footnotes

*

Dean, Faculty of Law, the University of the West Indies, Barbados, and Associate Professor, School of Law, University of Warwick.

References

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2. Ibid., at 38–9.

3. I do not disparage the journal, which I hold in the highest esteem. Inequality prevails in academic scholarship as much as it does in other facets of life. Less renowned journals—and certainly politically charged ones—suffer from resource limitations that impede circulation.

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24. Ifeonu EBERECHI, “‘Rounding Up the Usual Suspects’: Exclusion, Selectivity, and Impunity in the Enforcement of International Criminal Justice and the African Union's Emerging Resistance” (2011) 4 African Journal of Legal Studies 51; Ifeonu EBERECHI, “Armed Conflicts in Africa and Western Complicity: A Disincentive for African Union's Cooperation with the ICC” (2009) 3 African Journal of Legal Studies 53.

25. Ntina TZOUVALA, Capitalism as Civilisation: A History of International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020); Robert KNOX, “Civilizing Interventions? Race, War and International Law” (2013) 26 Cambridge Review of International Affairs 111.

26. Okafor, supra note 21.

27. Ingo VENZKE, “What If? Counterfactual (Hi)Stories of International Law” (2018) 8 Asian Journal of International Law 403 at 410.

28. Johns, supra note 11.

29. Venzke, supra note 27 at 410.

30. al Attar, supra note 23.

31. Walter D. MIGNOLO and Catherine E. WALSH, On Decoloniality: Concepts, Analytics, Praxis (Duke, NC: Duke University Press, 2018).

32. James T. GATHII, Henry J. RICHARDSON, and Karen KNOP, “Introduction to Symposium on Theorizing Twail Activism” (2016) 110 American Journal of International Law Unbound 18; Bhupinder S. CHIMNI, “The World of TWAIL: Introduction to the Special Issue” (2011) 3 Trade, Law and Development 14; Antony ANGHIE, “TWAIL: Past and Future” (2008) 10 International Community Law Review 479.

33. al Attar, supra note 23.

34. Antony ANGHIE, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

35. Gathii, supra note 15.

36. Sundhya PAJUJA, Decolonising International Law: Development, Economic Growth and the Politics of Universality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

37. Arnulf B. LORCA, “Universal International Law: Nineteenth-Century Histories of Imposition and Appropriation” (2010) 51 Harvard International Law Journal 475.

38. Obiora C. OKAFOR, Re-Defining Legitimate Statehood: International Law and State Fragmentation in Africa (Boston, MA: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2000).

39. Luis ESLAVA, Michael FAKHRI, and Vasuki NESIAH, eds., Bandung, Global History, and International Law: Critical Pasts and Pending Futures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017).

40. Ratna KAPUR, Gender, Alterity and Human Rights: Freedom in a Fishbowl (London: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020).

41. Tzouvala, supra note 25.

42. Gathii, supra note 16; Martineau, supra note 16.

43. Anghie, supra note 34; Gathii, supra note 15; Ratna KAPUR, “Gender, Sovereignty and the Rise of a Sexual Security Regime in International Law and Postcolonial India” (2013) 14 Melbourne Journal of International Law 317.

44. Balakrishnan RAJAGOPAL, “Counter-Hegemonic International Law: Rethinking Human Rights and Development as a Third World Strategy” (2006) 27 Third World Quarterly 767.

45. Brian-Vincent IKEJIAKU, “International Law is Western Made Global Law: The Perception of Third-World Category” (2013) 6 African Journal of Legal Studies 337.

46. Ugo MATTEI and Laura NADER, Plunder: When the Rule of Law Is Illegal (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008).

47. Antony ANGHIE and Bhupinder S. CHIMNI, “Third World Approaches to International Law and Individual Responsibility in Internal Conflicts” (2003) 2 Chinese Journal of International Law 77 at 101.

48. Martti KOSKENNIEMI, “The Politics of International Law – 20 Years Later” (2009) 20 European Journal of International Law 7.

49. Mignolo and Walsh, supra note 31.

50. Ignacio DE LA RASILLA DEL MORAL, “Francisco de Vitoria's Unexpected Transformations and Reinterpretations for International Law” (2013) 15 International Community Law Review 287; Pablo ZAPATERO, “Legal Imagination in Vitoria. The Power of Ideas” (2009) 11 Journal of the History of International Law / Revue d'histoire du droit international 221.

51. Bhupinder S. CHIMNI, “Third World Approaches to International Law: A Manifesto” (2006) 8 International Community Law Review 3.

52. Hippolyte, “Correcting TWAIL's Blind Spots”, supra note 20.

53. Mohsen AL ATTAR, “Pathology or Plutocracy: The Misery of International Law” (2019) 32 Leiden Journal of International Law 875.

54. John LINARELLI, Margot E. SALOMON, and Muthucumaraswamy SONARAJAH, The Misery of International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018) at 65.

55. Ibid., at 60.

56. Ibid., at 272.

57. James T. GATHII, “TWAIL: A Brief History of its Origins, its Decentralized Network, and a Tentative Bibliography” (2011) 3 Trade, Law and Development 26.

58. Mignolo and Walsh, supra note 31.

59. Mohsen AL ATTAR, “TWAIL: A Paradox within a Paradox” (2020) 22 International Community Law Review 163.

60. al Attar and Tava, supra note 1.

61. Ibid., at 11.

62. According to the Teaching and Researching International Law in Asia Report, the five “most popular textbooks” that support teaching international law in Asia are, in this order, Shaw, Brownlie, Dixon, Harris, and Evans. Even “Chinese law schools mainly [use] translated versions”, Antony ANGHIE and J.R. Robert G. REAL, “Teaching and Researching International Law in Asia (TRILA) Project – 2020 Report” (Singapore: National University of Singapore Centre for international Law, 2020) at 66–7.

63. Rodolfo F. ACUNA, “On Pedagogy” (2009) 12 Harvard Latino Law Review 7 at 12.

64. Jan KLABBERS, International Law, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017) at xv.

65. Malcolm SHAW, International Law, 8th ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018) at 1.

66. Ibid., at 20.

67. Ibid., at 27.

68. Ibid.

69. William P. ALFORD, “Why Western Scholars of Chinese History and Society Have Not Had More to Say about its Law” (1997) 23 Modern China 398 at 400 (emphasis added).

70. Ibid.

71. Shaw, supra note 65 at 33.

72. Klabbers, supra note 64.

73. Shaw, supra note 65 at 30.

74. David A. WESTBROOK, “Islamic International Law and Public International Law: Separate Expressions of World Order” (1993) 33 Virginia Journal of International Law 819. To help situate Westbrook's scholarship, I note that, among dozens of publications, only three pertain to Islam, including the aforementioned paper as well as “Strategic Consequences of Radical Islamic Neofundamentalism” and “Deploying Ourselves: Islamist Violence and the Responsible Projection of U.S. Force”. The titles are representative of his predilections.

75. Achille J. MBEMBE, “Decolonizing the University: New Directions” (2016) 15 Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 29 at 36. Mbembe describes and condemns the “particular anthropological knowledge” that Shaw practises, whereby a process is adopted to know others without “fully acknowledge[ing] these Others as thinking and knowledge-producing subjects”.

76. Klabbers, supra note 64 at 84.

77. Shaw, supra note 65 at 473.

78. James CRAWFORD and Martti KOSKENNIEMI, “Introduction” in James CRAWFORD and Martti KOSKENNIEMI, eds., The Cambridge Companion to International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012). The scholars in question are Bhupinder S. Chimni and Sundhya Pahuja.

79. Michael A. PETERS, “Why is My Curriculum White?” (2015) 47 Educational Philosophy and Theory 641 at 643.

80. Ibid.

81. Sara AHMED, “Declarations of Whiteness: The Non-Performativity of Anti-Racism” (2004) 3 Borderlands at para. 2.

82. al Attar, supra note 23 at 119.

83. Antony ANGHIE, “Critical Pedagogy: Critical Thinking and Teaching as Common Sense: Random Reflections” Opinio Juris (31 August 2020), online: Opinio Juris <http://opiniojuris.org/2020/08/31/critical-pedagogy-symposium-critical-thinking-and-teaching-as-common-sense-random-reflections/>.

84. wa Thiong'o, supra note 5.

85. al Attar and Tava, supra note 1 at 15.

86. Kate BLOCH, “Cognition and Star Trek: Learning and Legal Education” (2009) 42 John Marshall Law Review 959 at 965.

87. Cheryl B. PRESTON, Penée W. STEWART, and Louise R. MOULDING, “Teaching ‘Thinking Like a Lawyer’: Metacognition and Law Students” (2014) Brigham Young University Law Review 1053.

88. Christine SCHWÖBEL-PATEL and Michelle BURGIS-KASTHALA “Decolonising the International Law Curriculum” (2019), manuscript, on file with the author.

89. Letitia H. FICKEL, “‘Unbanking Education’: Exploring Constructs of Knowledge, Teaching, and Learning” in Linda A. SPEARS-BUNTON and Rebecca POWELL. eds., Toward a Literacy of Promise: Joining the African-American Struggle (New York: Routledge, 2009), 41.

90. Cyndi KERNAHAN and Tricia DAVIS, “What Are the Long-Term Effects of Learning about Racism?” (2010) 37 Teaching of Psychology 41.

91. Peter BOGHOSSIAN, “Behaviorism, Constructivism, and Socratic Pedagogy” (2006) 38 Educational Philosophy and Theory 713.

92. Acuna, supra note 63 at 7.

93. In addition to my own work, please see Babatunde FAGBAYIBO, “Critical Pedagogy of International Legal Education in Africa: An Exploration of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti's Music” in Romola ADEOLA, Michael G. NYARKO, Adebayo OKEOWO, and Frans VILJOEN, eds., The Art Of Human Rights: Commingling Art, Human Rights And The Law In Africa (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019), 7; Bhupinder S. CHIMNI, “An Outline of a Marxist Course on Public International Law” (2004) 17 Leiden Journal of International Law 1; P.K. MENON, “Third World Perspectives on International Law and Its Teaching” (1993) 21 Korean Journal of Comparative Law 135.

94. Hilary CHARLESWORTH, “International Law: A Discipline of Crisis” (2002) 65 Modern Law Review 377; Anne ORFORD, “On International Legal Method” (2013) 1 London Review of International Law 166; Dianne OTTO, “Handmaidens, Hierarchies and Crossing the Public-Private Divide in the Teaching of International Law” (2000) 1 Melbourne Journal of International Law 3; Gerry SIMPSON, “On the Magic Mountain: Teaching Public International Law” (1999) 10 European Journal of International Law 70.

95. Mignolo and Walsh, supra note 31 at 3.

96. Chimni, supra note 51.

97. Joel MODIRI, “The Time and Space of Critical Legal Pedagogy” (2016) 27 Stellenbosch Law Review 507.

98. Mbembe, supra note 75.

99. Ibid.

100. Ibid.

101. Gurminder K. BHAMBRA, Dalia GEBRIAL, and Kerem NIŞANCIOĞLU, “Introduction: Decolonising the University” in Gurminder K. BHAMBRA, Dalia GEBRIAL, and Kerem NIŞANCIOĞLU, eds., Decolonising the University (London: Pluto Press, 2018), 1 at 5.

102. Schwöbel-Patel and Burgis-Kasthala, supra note 88.

103. Anna FAZACKERLEY, “UCL Launches Inquiry into Historical Links with Eugenics” The Guardian (6 December 2018), online: The Guardian <https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/dec/06/ucl-launches-inquiry-into-historical-links-with-eugenics>.

104. Al-Quds Bard College imports a liberal arts education into Palestine, adopting a model academic imperialism championed by Roland Paris. Neil COOPER, Mandy TURNER, and Michael PUGH, “The End of History and the Last Liberal Peacebuilder: A Reply to Roland Paris” (2011) 37 Review of International Studies 1995. Vasuki NESIAH, “A Flat Earth for Lawyers Without Borders: Rethinking Current Approaches to the Globalization of Legal Education” (2013) 5 Drexel Law Review 371.

105. “MIT-Lockheed Martin Seed Fund Launches” MIT News (18 April 2019), online: MIT News <https://news.mit.edu/2019/lockheed-martin-mit-misti-seed-fund-0418>.

106. Juan G. VALDÉS, Pinochet's Economists: The Chicago School in Chile (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

107. Ibid.

108. Bhambra et al., supra note 101 at 5.

109. Eve TUCK and K. Wayne YANG, “Decolonization is Not a Metaphor” (2012) 1 Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society 1 at 2.

110. Bhambra et al., supra note 101.

111. Stanley ARONOWITZ and Henry A. GIROUX, Education Under Siege: The Conservative, Liberal, and Radical Debate Over Schooling (London: Routledge, 1987).

112. Mbembe, supra note 75 at 37.

113. Ibid.

114. Vusi GUMEDE, “Leadership for Africa's Development: Revisiting Indigenous African Leadership and Setting the Agenda for Political Leadership” (2017) 48 Journal of Black Studies 74.

115. Chimni, supra note 51.

116. Adelle BLACKETT, “Follow the Drinking Gourd: Our Road to Teaching Critical Race Theory and Slavery and the Law, Contemplatively, at McGill” (2017) 62 McGill Law Journal 1251 at 1260.

117. al Attar and Tava, supra note 1.

118. I quote an anonymous colleague who commented on a draft version of this paper: “You know this already—and I'm not blowing smoke—but this is the guiding principle for me [when teaching international law in Palestine]. It works for some and falls flat for others. But the reasons why it falls flat also tell me much about the colonial conditioning of my students in Palestine, who have been trapped into solely believing in International Law's emancipatory potential at the expense of all other options.”

119. al Attar and Tava, supra note 1.

120. Richard FALK, “International Law and the Future” (2006) 27 Third World Quarterly 727; Bhupinder S. CHIMNI, “A Just World under Law: A View from the South” (2007) 22 American University International Law Review 199.

121. al Attar and Tava, supra note 1 at 37.

122. Anghie, supra note 83.

123. Ralph FOLSOM and Neal ROBERTS, “The Warwick Story: Being Led Down the Contextual Path of the Law” (1979) 30 Journal of Legal Education 166.

124. Anghie, supra note 83.

125. Ibid.

126. Ibid.

127. Cooper et al., supra note 104.

128. Shaw, supra note 65 at 28–9.

129. Obiora C. OKAFOR, “Enacting Twailian Praxis in Nonacademic Habitats: Toward a Conceptual Framework” (2016) 110 American Journal of International Law Unbound 20; Margot E. SALOMON, “From NIEO to Now and the Unfinishable Story of Economic Justice” (2013) 62 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 31; Mohsen AL ATTAR, “Counter-Revolution by Ideology? Law and Development's Vision(s) for Post-Revolutionary Egypt” (2012) 33 Third World Quarterly 1611; and Mattei and Nader, supra note 46.

130. John REYNOLDS, “Decolonising the Chagos Islands?” (2019) 2 Nigerian Yearbook of International Law 11.

131. John REYNOLDS, “Disrupting Civility: Amateur Intellectuals, International Lawyers and TWAIL as Praxis” (2016) 37 Third World Quarterly 2098.

132. Nahed SAMOUR, “Is There a Role for Islamic International Law in the History of International Law?” (2014) 25 European Journal of International Law 313; James T. GATHII, “Mapping African International Law” (2011) 2 Transnational Legal Theory 429; BING Bing Jia, “A Synthesis of the Notion of Sovereignty and the Ideal of the Rule of Law: Reflections on the Contemporary Chinese Approach to International Law” (2010) 53 German Yearbook of International Law 11.

133. Larry CHARTRAND, “Indigenizing the Legal Academy from a Decolonizing Perspective”, draft article on file with the author.

134. Marie BATTISTE, Decolonizing Education: Nourishing the Learning Spirit (Saskatoon: Purich Publishing Limited, 2017) at 161.

135. Chartrand, supra note 133.

136. Fagbayibo, supra note 9 at 179.

137. Ibid., at 180.

138. Ibid., at 181.

139. Ibid.

140. C.L. LIM, “Neither Sheep nor Peacocks: T.O. Elias and Post-Colonial International Law” (2008) 21 Leiden Journal of International Law 295.

141. James T. GATHII, “A Critical Appraisal of the International Legal Tradition of Taslim Olawale Elias” (2008) 21 Leiden Journal of International Law 317.

142. Fagbayibo, supra note 9 at 181.

143. Mohamed HELAL, “Teaching Public International Law: Reflections on the State of the Art in an Era of Uncertainty”, Michael E. Moritz. College of Law, Ohio State University, Ohio State Public Law Working Paper No. 416, 2 October 2017.

144. Fagbayibo, supra note 9 at 182.

145. Ibid., at 186.

146. With reference to the South American continent, Arnulf Lorca produced a similar work to Elias. He reaches a similar conclusion to Fagbayibo, albeit without the pedagogical inflections. Here it is necessary to revisit Gathii's critique as both scholars offer weak forms of critique. They accept the underlying epistemology and regime, seeking to value the non-European epistemic by locating and celebrating it. The validity of the regime is beyond doubt. Lorca, supra note 37.

147. Simon CHESTERMAN, Hisashi OWADA, and Ben SAUL, eds., The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Asia and the Pacific (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019); Hiroshi FUKURAI, “Fourth World Approaches to International Law (FWAIL) and Asia's Indigenous Struggles and Quests for Recognition under International Law” (2018) 5 Asian Journal of Law and Society 221; Bhupinder S. CHIMNI, “Asian Civilizations and International Law: Some Reflections” (2011) 1 Asian Journal of International Law 39.

148. Simon CHESTERMAN, “Asia's Ambivalence about International Law and Institutions: Past, Present and Futures” (2016) 27 European Journal of International Law 945 at 957.

149. Ibid., at 966–7.

150. Ibid., at 968–77.

151. Anghie and Real, supra note 62.

152. Ibid., at 2.

153. Ibid., at 7.

154. Ibid., at 28.

155. Ibid., at 27.

156. Ibid., at 28–9.

157. Balraj K. SIDHU, “TRILA and India: A Plea for its Restoration” Afronomics Law (16 September 2020), online: Afronomics Law <https://www.afronomicslaw.org/2020/09/16/trila-and-india-a-plea-for-its-restoration/>.

158. Ibid.

159. Ibid.

160. Lorca, supra note 37; Balakrishnan RAJAGOPAL, “International Law and Its Discontents: Rethinking the Global South” (2012) 106 Proceedings of the American Society of International Law Annual Meeting 176.

161. Anghie and Real, supra note 62 at 16.

162. Seokwoo LEE, “Critical Pedagogy Symposium: Critical International Legal Pedagogy in a Virtual Climate – DILA's Digital Lecture Series” Opinio Juris (2 August 2020), online: Opinio Juris <http://opiniojuris.org/2020/09/02/critical-pedagogy-symposium-critical-international-legal-pedagogy-in-a-virtual-learning-climate-dilas-digital-lecture-series/>.

163. The Afronomics Law blog is an excellent resource in this regard.

164. Anghie and Real, supra note 62 at 30.

165. Ibid.

166. Ebrahim AFSAH, “Contested Universalities of International Law: Islam's Struggle with Modernity” (2008) 10 Journal of the History of International Law 259.

167. Alda M. BLAKENEY, “Antiracist Pedagogy: Definition, Theory, Purpose and Professional Development” (2011) 2 Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy 119 at 121.

168. Blackett, supra note 116.

169. Ibid.

170. Blakeney, supra note 167 at 123.

171. Kyoko KISHIMOTO, “Anti-Racist Pedagogy: From Faculty's Self-Reflection to Organizing Within and Beyond the Classroom” (2018) 21 Race Ethnicity and Education 540.

172. Ibid. at 546.

173. Derrick BELL, “Racial Realism” (1992) 24 Connecticut Law Review 363; Richard DELGADO, “Derrick Bell's Racial Realism: A Comment on White Optimism and Black Despair” (1992) 24 Connecticut Law Review 527.

174. Helen SCOTT, “Was There a Time Before Race? Capitalist Modernity and the Origins of Racism” in Crystal BARTOLOVICH and Neil LAZARUS, eds., Marxism, Modernity and Postcolonial Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 167.

175. Shaw, supra note 65 at 30–2.

176. Aaron KAMUGISHA, “The Black Experience of New World Coloniality” (2016) 20 Small Axe 129.

177. Megan E. MORRISSEY and Karen Y. KIMBALL, “#SpoiledMilk: Blacktavists, Visibility, and the Exploitation of the Black Breast” (2017) 40 Women's Studies in Communication 48, at 54–7.

178. Walter RODNEY, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1974).

179. Salomon, supra note 129 at 32.

180. Ibid.

181. Ibid.

182. Ibid.

183. Reflecting on the gathering to establish the Bretton Woods System, John Maynard Keynes took issue with the invitation list, observing that the inclusion of large numbers of countries beyond the Atlantic axis represented “the most monstrous monkey-house assembled for many years”. Most present would “merely encumber the ground” said the economist often celebrated for his humanitarianism. See Christy THORNTON, “Voice and Vote for the Weaker Nations: Mexico's Bretton Woods” in Giles SCOTT-SMITH and J. Simon ROFE, eds., Global Perspectives on the Bretton Woods Conference and the Post-War Order (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 149 at 150; and Devesh KAPUR, John P. LEWIS, and Richard WEBB, The World Bank: Its First Half Century, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1977) at 62.

184. Ngaire WOODS, “The Challenge of Good Governance for the IMF and the World Bank Themselves” (2000) 28 World Development 823.

185. Patrick BOND, Looting Africa: The Economics of Exploitation (London: Zed Books, 2006).

186. Ibid., at 8.

187. James T. GATHII, “Writing Race and Identity in a Global Context: What CRT and TWAIL Can Learn From Each Other” (2020) 67 UCLA Law Review.

188. Penelope E. ANDREWS, “Making Room for Critical Race Theory in International Law: Some Practical Pointers” (2000) 45 Villanova Law Review 855.

189. Blackett, supra note 116.

190. Kishimoto, supra note 171 at 546.

191. MIÉVILLE, China, “The Commodity-Form Theory of International Law: An Introduction” (2004) 17 Leiden Journal of International Law 271Google Scholar.

192. Knox, supra note 25.

193. Robert COOPER, “The New Liberal Imperialism” The Guardian (7 April 2002), online: The Guardian <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/apr/07/1>; Frank FOLEY, “Between Force and Legitimacy: The Worldview of Robert Cooper”, European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, EUI Working Paper Series RSCAS 2007/09, 2007.

194. Cooper, supra note 193.

195. Ibid.

196. al Attar, supra note 59.

197. Ibid.

198. Anghie and Chimni, supra note 47 at 101.

199. al Attar, supra note 59.

200. Mignolo and Walsh, supra note 31.

201. Reynolds, supra note 131 at 2100.

202. MICKELSON, Karin, ODUMOSU, Ibironke, and PARMAR, Pooja, “Situating Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL): Inspirations, Challenges and Possibilities” (2008) 10 International Community Law Review 351Google Scholar.